/ 

Til E 



E L E M E N T S 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 



SO ARRANGED AS TO COMBINE THE 



ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETICAL METHODS 



INTRODUCTION FOR BEGINNERS, 



1>US EXERCISES, ORAL AND WRITTEN, 



FORMATION, ANALYSIS, TRANSFORMATION, CLASSIFICATION. AND 

CORRECTION -OF SENTENCES. 

BY 

SAMUEL S.' GREENE, A. M., 

*»BOFESSOR IX THE NORMAL DEPARTMENT, BRO'Vv UW1VER9TT7 AJ?D 
BVfEKINTENDKKT OF PCiJLIC SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
IT. COWPERTHWAIT & CO, 

185G 



ftatsrad, according to Act of Congress, in the year i§§3, fe? 

SAMUEL S. GREENE, 

fa %'tiQ Cleik's Office of the District Court of Rhods list©* 






PEEFACE 



The design of this new work — for it is essentially new — 
is to combine in one treatise all the distinguishing features 
of the " Analysis " and " The First Lessons." The depart- 
ments of Orthography and Etymology are made sufficiently 
full, and their principles are illustrated by a great variety oi 
examples. Oral Exercises, Exercises for Parsing and for 
the Correction of Errors, are introduced in their appropriate 
places, under each part of speech. The Syntax contains 
all the essential distinctions found in the "Analysis," but 
differently arranged, and less rigidly and technically set forth. 

In the presentation of a subject like that of English Gram- 
mar, the first question which naturally arises is that of the 
point of view from which it shall be examined. Shall the 
forms of language be regarded as direct results from thought, 
as the offspring of an inner impulse ? or shall they be looked 
upon as possessing in themselves, regardless of their origin, all 
that is necessary to guide to a successful investigation ? The 
one may be called the interior, the other the exterior, point 
of view. From the one point, language is regarded as or- 
ganized under the influence of a vital, life-imparting power, 
determining all its outward forms and manifestations ; while 
from the other it becomes a lifeless frame, to be dis- 
sected and examined, for the purpose of ascertaining what it 
is, and of what it is composed. At one point, the learner is 

iii 



IV PREFACE. 

placed in sympathy with the speaker or writer, in the act of 
embodying thought, and is allowed, as it were, to inquire why 
one form is chosen and another rejected ; why one expression, 
better than another, supplies the inner demand ; whether a sin- 
gle word or a group of words best meets the want, and what 
the word or group shall be called, not so much from its exter- 
nal features as from the nature of the idea which it denotes. 
From the other point of view the learner seeks to know what 
a word or expression is from its external aspect — its ter- 
mination, position, or from some auxiliary or other outward 
sign. In one case, an idea being given, the problem with 
the learner is, to find as well an appropriate expression as 
to decide upon the nature and classification of the latter. In 
the other case, an expression being given, the problem is to 
determine therefrom its nature and class. In the one case, 
expression is the prominent object of interest ; in the other 
thought, expression being regarded only as the medium of 
its manifestation. 

The author has aimed in the following pages, as far as 
possible, to take the interior point of view. He has, there- 
fore, required much to be written by the pupil, believing that 
what is produced by one's own mind is best appreciated and 
best analyzed. To this end also have the Introduction and 
Oral Exercises been prepared. Objects in the outer world 
first attract the attention of the child : they first call forth 
the desire to speak ; they are ever after his lexicon. Nay, 
more : they give rise to most of the distinctions in language ; 
and it is believed that an ingenious teacher would, at the out- 
set, accomplish more in imparting a knowledge of grammar . 
during a single walk in the fields, among the objects of 
nature, than during a whole week devoted to the abstract 
definitions of a text book. With children, that which is 
seen is impressive ; a distinction addressed to the eye is 
indelibly fixed. The image or mental picture arising there- 
from is ever after distinct, awakening the impression of a 
corresponding outward reality. What is defined in word? 



PREFACE. ▼ 

must be committed to memory, as the result of another's 
judgment ; what is seen reaches the understanding at once, 
and defines itself by appealing directly to the discriminating 
faculty. "When visible objects are employed, the teacher is 
required to tell but little ; he only guides, intimates, suggests ; 
while the learner is observing for himself, discriminating 
for himself, expressing for himself. 

The Introductory Course is intended to be wholly oral. 
The models are given as specimens of methods which teach- 
ers may adopt to evolve grammatical distinctions k- )m exter- 
nal objects. As objects, with all their varieties, attributes, 
relations, modifications, and distinctions, first evoked in the 
child the desire to speak, so now theyjuay be most fittingly 
resorted to as the interpreters of the distinctions found in 
speech itself. -A child of six years already knows enough to 
distinguish the noun, although he may not know one word of 
its definition. He knows what an apple is ; it is an object 
perfectly familiar to him ; its name is equally so. The one 
he can touch, taste, handle ; the other he can only speak or 
write. The one is the thing itself; the other its name, a 
mere word, an object-word, a noun. He can now generalize, 
and make the same distinction between a peach, a cherry, a 
nut, an insect, a fish, a bird, or a quadruped, and its name. 
He finds nouns wherever he finds objects which he can name. 
So, again, he knows the qualities of objects ; he may not 
know the meaning of the word quality, but he knows when 
an apple is sweet or sour, hard or soft, ripe or unripe, small 
or large, rough or smooth, red or yellow, good or bad. He 
knows that no one of these designates the apple itself, but 
only something discovered in it. It is only necessary to 
draw his attention to what he thus knows, and make a skil- 
ful use of it. The quality is something in the object ; the 
word is- something away from the object spoken or written — • 
a mere word — a quality-word — an adjective. He knows 
when an object acts ; he can tell when a dog runs or walks, 
growls or barks, plays or fights ; and yet the definition, "A 
a* 



VI PREFACE. 

verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," is to 
him wholly incomprehensible. It is easy to draw his atten- 
tion to the difference between the action itself and the mere 
action-word or verb which represents it. In the same way, 
all the parts of speech may be easily drawn from the learn- 
er's own resources. The teacher thus appeals directly to the 
intelligence of the learner, and not to the authority of a 
definition. By similar processes, the combination of words 
into sentences and parts of sentences may be easily illus- 
trated. To do all this, and to prepare the way for the more 
formal and technical course, is the object of the Introduction. 
The author would invite attention to the mode of pre- 
senting each of the •prominent topics in Orthography and 
Etymology. 

1. An oral exercise, in which it is supposed that the learner 
is about to enter upon a new field of inquiry, is first given. 
In this nothing is to be taken for granted, nothing presented 
dogmatically. The pupil's power to express what takes place 
in the common affairs of life is made the basis of those gram- 
matical distinctions, to which the teacher wishes to draw at- 
tention. A principle in language being thus evolved, the 
learner is called upon to express it in his own words ; he feels 
the need of suitable terms. 

2. The way is thus prepared for the definitions which im- 
mediately follow. They give expression to the very distinc- 
tions which, in the oral exercise, the pupil has learned to 
make. They are welcomed as exhibitions of his own 
thoughts, and not as paragraphs of unmeaning words, to 
be mastered by the mere force of memory. But the learner 
is not left here. The ability to make a distinction, or even 
to embody it in language, does not always insure its univer- 
sal application. Hence, — 

3. Copious and varied exercises immediately follow the 
definitions and remarks. These are intended (1.) to test 
tiis ability to apply the definitions ; (2.) his ability to pro- 
lace illustrative examples ; (3.) his ability to alter and adap 4 



ac:;. vn 

given examples, in all their varieties and modifications, 
to the words with which they are connected ; and (4.) his 
ability to correct erroneous expressions. 

Two classes of errors are given : the first intended to 
illustrate violations of the principles under consideration ; 
the second, prevailing improprieties of speech, which the 
rules of grammar may or may not correct. These, though 
they may seem blemishes on the pages of a grammar, are 
inserted in the hope that they may draw attention to the 
importance of cultivating in the school room the spirit of 
generous criticism. It is the study of the language, rather 
than the technical forms of grammar, that should claim the 
first attention of the teacher. It being his aim to cultivate 
the habit of speaking and writing correctly, it is immaterial 
whether all the principles of criticism are embodied in a 
grammar, or are drawn from the known usages of good 
speakers and good writers. These and kindred exercises, 
if faithfully attended to, will do more than any thing else to 
eradicate those incorrect expressions which habit is daily 
confirming. If it should seem that the examples are too 
glaring and palpable, it must be said, in reply, that they are 
mainly actual expressions taken from the lips of children, 
and that the author has thought it best, at first, to take the 
most obvious errors, and engage the attention by presenting, 
not doubtful, but striking examples. 

The Syntax is arranged on a plan similar in ts spirit to 
the other parts. It is assumed that a child can best under- 
stand a sentence by witnessing its formation. Hence, — 

Under the head of Construction, the learner commences 
with the foundation of the sentence, and from this most fa- 
vorable point of view he witnesses the progress of its struc- 
ture, from its commencement to its completion. As the parts 
are added one by one, he notes the effect of each, and feels 
that each supplies a want and fills a vacancy demanded by 
the unfinished structure. In no other way so well can the 
peculiar force of the elementary parts be appreciated. Hav- 



Till PREFACE. 

ing learned to combine every form and coi dition of the ele- 
ments, whether with their relations expressed or unexpressed, 
he commences, under the head of Analysis, the opposite 
process of taking the structure in pieces, and pointing out all 
the peculiarities of its parts. Thus by the two processes any 
child of ordinary capacity must become acquainted with the 
general features of a sentence, whether considered as a whole, 
or in respect to its component parts. The way is now pre- 
pared for the Rules and principles which apply to the more 
minute details of construction. Various Cautions, intended 
to guard the learner against prevalent errors in common con- 
versation, are interspersed among the rules. They are to be 
used in correcting errors. Under the head of Peculiarities 
and Idioms, a few of the anomalous and peculiar expres- 
sions which perplex the learner are collected and explained. 

The author has thought it best to indicate the prominent 
idea in the paragraphs to be committed to memory by Italics, 
rather than to insert printed questions. The teacher can 
then vary the questions to suit the wants of the learner ; and 
*"ie learner will follow the guidance of the subject rather than 
that of the questions. The paragraphs in large type are 
intended as a first course, to be committed to memory by the 
learner. The Remarks in smaller type are intended as a 
second course for the more advanced pupil. Any parts of 
this second course may be studied or omitted, at the discre- 
tion of the teacher. 

The author takes this opportunity to acknowledge his in- 
debtedness to many friends, mostly teachers, whose sugges- 
tions and words of encouragement have induced him to pre- 
pare this work, in the hope that it may supply such defects 
as were found in his other books, and may prove a complete 
and convenient text book on the subject of grammar. 

S. S. GREENE. 
Providence, June, 1853. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

PA.GI 

Lesson I. Objects, < xiii 

II. Criticism, xv 

III. Qualities of Objects, _ xvi 

IV. Actions of Obiects, xix 

V. Ideas and Words, or Expressions of Ideas, xx 

VI. Qualities of Actions, xxiii 

VII. Relation of Objects, '. xxiv 

VIII. Classification of Words, xxv 

IX. Combination of Words, '• xxvi 

X. The Proposition, xxviii 

XI. The Proposition enlarged, xxix 

XII. Implied Relations, xxxiii 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition and Division, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Elementary Sounds. — Oral Exercise, 2 

Classes of Elementary Sounds, 2 

Table of Elementary Sounds, £ 

Letters. — Oral Exercise, 4 

Classes of Letters, 5 

Combination of Letters, 6 

Syllables. — Oral Exercise, 8 

\ Vords as the Representatives of Sounds, 9 

Derivation. — Rules for Spelling, 10 

Spelling, 11 

Primitive Words, 11 

Derivative Words, 11 

Prefixes. — Rules I. II., 12 

Suffixes. —Rules I. II. III., 15 

Rules for the Use of Capital Letters, 18 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Classification of Words, 18 

I'arts of Speech, 19 



X CONTENTS. 

- • 

Nouns 20 

Classes of Nouns, 21 

Person, 22 

Number, 23 

Formation of the Plural, . ♦ 23 

Remarks on the Number of Nouns, 25 

Gender, 26 

Case. — Oral Exercise, 28 

Declension of Nouns, 29 

Parsing, « «... 30 

Adjectives. — Oral Exercise, 33 

Classes of Adjectives, • 33 

Articles. 34 

Pronominal Adjectives, 35 

Numeral Adjectives, , 36 

Qualifying Adjectives, . 36 

Comparison of Adjectives. — Formation of the Com- 
parative and Superlative, 37 

Pronouns. — Oral Exercises, 39 

Classes of Pronouns, 41 

Personal Pronouns, 41 

Declension, 42 

Relative Pronouns, 45 

Simple Relatives, 46 

Compound Relatives, 47 

Interrogative Pronouns, 48 

Verbs. — Oral Exercise, 50 

Classes of Verbs, . 52 

Voice. — Oral Exercise, ,... 54 

Mode. — Oral Exercise, 57 

Participles, 59 

Tense. — Oral Exercise, 63 

Tenses in all the Modes, 67 

Forms of the Verb, - 69 

Forms for each Division of Time, 70 

Auxiliaries, 72 

Conjugation of Auxiliaries, r. 73 

Formation of Tenses, 73 

Indicative Mode, 73 

Potential Mode, 76 

Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive, 78 

Number and Person of the Verb, 79 

Conjugation, 79 

Of the Verb " to be," 80 

Of the Verb "to love," 84 

Interrogative and Negative Forms, 89 

Synopsis. — Progressive Form, 90 

Synopsis. — Emphatic Form, 90 

Forms for eich Division of Time combined. — 

Verb " to make," 91 

Irregular Verbs, 92 

Defective Verbs, 96 

Impersonal Verbs, 96 

Adverbs, . . 99 

Classes of Adverbs, 100 

Conjunctive Adverbs, 101 

Comparison of Adverbs, 101 

Prepositions, 102 

Conjunctions. *. 104 

Classes of Connectives, 105 

Interjection, ...» 103 



CONTENTS. X 

SYNTAX. 

Oral Exercise, 110 

I. CONSTRUCTION — Sentence-making. 

Sect. I. Simple Sentences. — Words. — Relations Unrep- 
resented, Ill 

A. Subject and Predicate Unmodified, Ill 

B. Subject Modified. — Oral Exercise, 112 

Various Kinds of Complex Subjects, 113 

C. Predicate Modified. — Oral Exercise, 116 

Various Kinds of Complex Predicates, 116 

D. Subject and Predicate Modified, 118 

Sect. II. Simple Sentences. — Phrases. — Relations Repre- 
sented, 119 

A. Subject and Predicate not Modified 120 

B. Subject Modified, 122 

C. Predicate Modified, 124 

D. Subject and Predicate Modified, 126 

Sect. III. Complex Sentences. — Clauses. — Relations Rep- 
resented, 127 

A. Sentences having a Subject and Predicate only, 128 

B. Subject Modified, 1 129 

C. Predicate Modified, 131 

D. Subject and Predicate Modified, 134 

Sect. IV. Compound Sentences. — Similar Parts Combined, 134 

Case I. Coordinate Elements, , 135 

Case II. Coordinate Clauses, 137 

Elements, 1 38 

Classes of Elements, 138 

Relation of Elements, 142 

Entire Sentences, 144 

Interrogative Sentences, 144 

Transformation of Sentences,... 145 

I. Altered Constructions, 145 

II. Elements Suppressed. — Ellipsis, 147 

III. Elements Transposed...... <••• 118 

II. ANALYSIS. 

General Directions, 149 

Models for Analysis, 151 

I. Elements with the Relations Unrepresented, 151 

II. Sentences with the Relations Represented, 153 

III. Complex Sentences, 154 

IV. Sentences having Coordinate Parts, 158 

III. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION. 

les, Cautions, and Remarks, 161 

Rule I. Subject, 161 

II. Attribute 162 

III. Pronoun, 164 

IV. Verb, 167 

V. Adjective, 169 



&U OONTEMS. 

VI. Apposition, 172 

VII. Possessives, 174 

VIII. Objectives...... 175 

IX. Adverbs, 177 

X. Interjection and Nominative Independent, 179 

XI. Coordinate Conjunctions, 180 

XII. Agreement of the Verb and Pronoun....... 181 

XIII. Preposition, 182 

XIV. Object of the Preposition, 183 

XV. Subordinate Connectives, 184 

Abridged Propositions, 185 

Subject in the Abridged Expression, 187 

Predicate, Noun, or Pronoun, 187 

XVL Infinitives, 187 

XVIL Participles, 1S9 



PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS. 

I. Classification and Uses of Words and Sentences, 191 

A. The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech, 191 

B. The Same Part of Speech in Different Relations and U ses, 192 

C. The Same Word, Element, or Sentence in its Different 

Properties, 194 

II. Peculiarities in the Form, Construction, and Applica- 

tion of Words, 197 

Figures of Etymology, - 197 

Figures of Syntax, 198 

Figures of Ilhetoric, ♦ 200 

III. Idiomatic Constructions, » 2C 

IV. Structure of Sentences, 205 



PUNCTUATION. 

I Points used within a Sentence, .....207 

Comma, 207 

Colon and Semicolon, 210 

Dash and Parenthesis, 211 

II. POxNTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE, 212 

Period, 212 

Interrogation Point, 212 

Exclamation Point, 212 

Other Marks used in Writing, 213 



PROSODY. 

Definition, 215 

Verse, 215 

Feet, 215 

Scanning, 216 

Iambic Verse, 216 

Trochaic Verse, 218 

Anapaestic Verse, 218 

Dactylic Verse,. 219 

Poetic Pauses, , 219 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE FOR BEGINNERS. 

LESSON I. 

OBJECTS. 

The world in which we live is full of objects, as trees 
shrubs, jloioers, grass, rocks, stones, metals, houses, barns 
valleys, rivers, brooks, springs, oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, 
oxen, horses, sheep, birds, insects, reptiles, mountains, hills, 
pools ; in all, a multitude so great that one could not count 
them in a lifetime. 

Lessons on objects may be conducted after the following 

^ MODEL* 

Teacher, (Pointing to the object.) What is this ? 

Pupils. . (In concert or separately.) The platform. 

Teacher. Now, write upon your slates near the top, Names op objects. 
(The teacher does the same on the blackboard.) Under this, 
write Platform, commencing it with a capital letter, and placing 
a period (.) after it. Now, which is the object ? 

Pvpih. . (All point to the platform.) 

Teacher. Which is the name of the object ? 

* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. Let the class be so arranged that each mem- 
ber can see the object pointed out. 2. Ask, while pointing to it, " What is this ? " 
3. When the pupil has named it, write the name distinctly on the board. 4. Let each 
point out, first the object, and then its name, on the board. 5. Follow some order in 
the selection of objects, such as size, similarity, or location. 6. At first, let each exer- 
cise be vrritten by every pupil. 7. After the few first lessons, let some member of the 
class point out the objects, enjoining on him the observance of order. 8. At length, 
let each member silently select for himself a given number of objects. 9. In review- 
ing, let each scholar give in turn, orally, the names of objects in the room, taking 
care that no object shall be repeated. 10. Should the teacher find (as he undoubtedly 
will) th it the children have either no names, or incorrect, or perverted names for com- 
mon objects, let the correct name be given. 11. Encourage the habit of observation 
and the spirit of inquiry respecting all common objects. 12. Continue the exercise till 
all the objects in the school room are exhausted ; then take objects out of the room. 
13. When entire objects have been examined sufficiently, commence analyzing objects, 
and pointing out their parts. Each part is an object. 14. The term object-word may 
gradually be displaced by the word noun. 15. At first, let the attention be drawn more 
forcibly to the object than to the name ; but at length let the name, as an object-word, 
a noun, become the more prominent. 16. Let the exercises be multiplied arid varied 
by the teacher, till the object of the true basis of distinctk d is secured. 



XIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

Pupils. . All point to the blackboard or their slates, (thus showing tha 

they know the distinction.) 
Teacher. (Pointing to the first object at the end of the platform, so as to 

proceed in order.) What is this ? 
Pupils. . Bookcase. 
Teacher. WHte the word bookcase under Platform, placing the first letter 

directly under the first letter of that word. Now, since plat 

form and bookcase are names of objects, what shall we call shese 

words ? 
Pupils. . (All hesitate.) 

Teacher. May we not call them object-words ? 
Pupils. . (All give assent.) 

The lesson, when carried to six objects, — quite enough for the first, — 
will stand thus : — 

NAMES OF OBJECTS. 






ame. 

The same lesson may be written in lines so as to form a paragraph. 
The first word should begin with a capital, the rest (unless some are proper 
names) with small letters ; a comma should separate the words ; a period 
should be placed at the end. Each pupil should be made to feel responsi- 
ble for a strict observance of all these rules of criticism. Neglect now will 
be likely to result in neglect through life. The lesson will stand thus : — 

Names op Objects. Platform, bookcase, chair, settee, desk, George, 
box, table, umbrella, &c, &c. 



EXERCISES. 

I. (1.) What articles are made by a jeweller, a tailor, a milliner, a car- 
penter, a cabinet nrnker, an upholsterer, an optician, a blacksmith ? What 
do you call each NAME that you have given f Why t (2.) What articles do we 
use for food, drink, clothing, building, sewing, knitting, hunting, fishing, 
cooking? What do you call each word that you have used? Why? (3.) 
What articles may be found in a parlor,, a dining room, kitchen, closet, 
garden, church, hardware store, paper mill, grist mill, printing office, dry 
g )ods store? What do you call each name? Whyf (4.) What are the 
names of the various trees, plants, shrubs, flowers," fishes, reptiles, birds, 
domestic animals, nuts, fruits ? What do you call each xcord that you 
have used? Why t 

II. (1.) Mention all the parts of this room ; of the door, of the window 
the stove, the table, a chair, a pin, a book, a watch, a portfolio, a ship, a 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XV 

writing desk. (2.) Of a hat, a coat, a bonnet, an apron a dress, a boot, a 
stocking. (3.) Of a wagon, a harness, ahorse, a whip, a p lough, a scythe, a 
boat, a barn, a wheel, a steam engine. What do you call each word which 
you h a vc used 1 I Vh y f 

III. (1.) What do you call the following words : Pen, wafer, card, coal, 
flour, paper, pencil, thermometer, eye, hair, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, 
ear, chin, cheek, lip, eyelid ? 



LESSON II. 

CRITICISM* 

In writing exercises upon the slate or paper, the pupil 
should be careful/ (1.) to select his objects in an orderly 
manner; (2.) to spell correctly; (3.) to use capitals cor- 
rectly; (4.) to write legibly and neatly, that is, to observe 
uniformity in the size of the letters, to be careful to cross 
the t's, dot the i's, and to preserve a horizontal direction of 
the lines ; (5.) to punctuate correctly. 

MODEL FOB, CORRECTION, 
names of objects. 

fioar 

Desk 
soiling 
.Win der 

uik s 

*a 

n d 

The teacher, having transferred some faulty exercise like the above from the slat© 
of a pupil, calls the attention of the class to it in the following manner : — 

Teacher. How many of you see any thing wrong in this ? 
Pupils. . (All hands are raised. Each is eager to speak.) 
Teacher. (Naming a pupil.) Mention one error. 

Fupil. . The heading begins with a small letter, and has no lines drawn 
under it.f 

* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. Let the teacher at first examine each writ- 
ten exercise carefully. 2. Mark and draw attention to each minute error. 3. En- 
courage the members of the class to criticise each other — always in the spirit oi 
kindness. 4. Let the scholars exchange slates, and correct each other's errors. 5 
Let this habit of criticism be extended to all written and oral exercises, especially 
vlien the pupils begin to combine words. 

t See note p. xvii. 



XVI INTRODUCTORY COURSE, 

Teacher. (Naming another.) What else is wrong ? 

Pupil. . The objects are selected without order. 

Teacher. What else ? 

Pupil. . The words floor, ceiling, and window are misspelled. 

Teacher. Is any thing else wrong ? 

Pupil. . The words floor, ceiling, and inkstand begin with small letters. 

Teacher. Who can see any other error ? 

Pupil. . There are no periods at the end of the words. 

Teacher. (Having corrected the errors as they have been pointed out.) 

Does any one discover another error ? 
Pupil. . The words are written in a disorderly manner. 

Let such exercises be repeated, as often as may be necessary, to estab- 
lish habits of care and critical examination of every written exercise. 
When children are trained to habits of accuracy, neatness, and precision, 
they will know no other. 



LESSON III. 

QUALITIES OF OBJECTS* 

If we hold a piece of glass before our eyes, we can see 
through it ; but if we hold a slate in the same manner, we 
cannot see through it. W? say of the glass, because we cat 
see through it, it is transparent ; and of the slate, because 
we cannot see through it, it is opaque. Neither transparent 

* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. In writing, at first let the class use the full 
form, as in the first model : " The sponge is opaque," " The sponge is flexible," &c. 
After a little time they may use either of the contracted forms. 2. As this exercise 
will be found exceedingly suggestive, the teacher should first show that the word is 
called a quality-word, (adjective,) because it denotes a quality, and is on that account 
to be distinguished from an object-word, (noun.) He should then aim to awaken in the 
child an appreciation of the uses which we make of objects in the arts on account of 
their qualities ; show also how we classify, compare, contrast, measure, weigh, &c, &c. 
3. When it is wished to illustrate some quality, as adhesive, brittle, aromatic, some ob- 
ject is brought in, which contains it, and by an appropriate experiment the child's atten- 
tion is fastened upon it. 4. Whenever a quality cannot be made to appear directly, the 
opposite should be exhibited by way of contrast, and the attention of the pupil should 
be directed to the prefixes employed, as elastic, melastie, flexible, inflexible, sound, un- 
sound, ripe, M?iripe. 5. But in all this, let it be the teacher's ultimate aim to make the 
distinction between the adjective and noun. 6. When the pupil has become sufficiently 
acquainted with qualities, let him write the name of the quality and the name of the 
object together, thus: "Porous sponge;" " White paper ; " " Green corn." Also 
let him explain the effect of the quality-word upon the object-word. 7. He will now 
oe prepared to show the effect of such words as the, this, that, one, two, three, &c. } 
which do not express quality, but yet produce certain effects upon an object-word ; as, 
" Three books ; " " This hat ; " " Every boy." 8. Let the learner now be told that the 
term adjective applies to all the words which may be added to a noun, whether they de- 
note quality or not. 9. When objects are compared, let them be placed side by side in 
the presence of the class ; when classified, let the objects actually oe selected accord- 
ing to some (\> '*lity, as while, red. transparent &e, 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

nor opaque is any thing apart from the object. We eannol 
see transparent, nor take it in our hands as a thing, or a part 
of a tiling. It is what we discover in the glass. It is an 
attribute of the glass, which we call a quality. 

MODEL. 

Qualities of a sponge. 

Teacher. (The teacher takes a piece of dry sponge in his hand, and holds 
it np before the class.) What is this ? 

Pupils. . A piece of sponge. 

Teacher. Write " Qualities of the sponge " on your slates. (Then 
holding it to his eye, he attempts to see through it.) What can 
you say of the sponge ? 

Pupils. . It is opaque. 

Teache?\ Now write upon your slates, "The sponge is opaques" com- 
mencing the- expression with a capital letter, placing a period at 
the end, and drawing a line under "opaque," thus, opaque* 
(The teacher writes upon the board at the same time, as a model 
for the class.) 

Pupils. . (All write upon their slates.) 

Teacher. Now, where is the quality ? 

Pupils. . (All point to the sponge.) 

Teachet\ Where is the word which names or denotes it. 

Pupils. . (All point to their slates or to the blackboard, thus distinguish- 
ing between the word and the quality.) 

Teacher. Now, which is the object ? 

Pupils. . (All point to the sponge.) 

Teacher. And where is the quality opaque ? 

Pupils. . (All point to the sponge again.) 

Teacher. But is the sponge both the object and the quality f 

Pupils. . Sponge is the object, and the quality is found in the sponge. 
(Thus a distinction is made between an object and its qualities.) 

Teache)\ (The teacher bends the sponge.) What can you say of the 
sponge because it bends ? 

Pupils. . It is limber. 

Teacher. Yes, it is limber. Who can give a better word ? 

Pupils. . (No one speaks.) 

Teaclier. When any thing bends, we say it is flexible. Pronounce the word, 
and write, " The sponge is flexible." 

Pupils. . (All speak the word, and then write as directed.) 

Teacher. (The teacher now removes the pressure from the sponge, and it 
suddenly returns to its original form. He experiments with a 
piece of lead or wax in the same way, and shows that neither 

* The pupil should now be told that, in writing, a word is especially distinguished 
by drawing a line under it; in printing, by using the Italic letter; in speaking, by 
placing stress of voice upon it. Headings are distinguished by drawing two linei 
under them. 

i* 



XYIil INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

returns to its former state after the pressure is removed.) What 
can you say of the sponge because it comes \>ack to its original 
form ? 

Pupils. . It is springy. 

Teacher. Who can give another and a better word ? 

Pupils. . One pupil raises his hand, and says, elastic. 

Teacher. Right ; all may say elastic, and then write, " The sponge is etat- 
tic." Now, since the words opaque, flexible, and elastic are ap- 
plied to qualities, and not to objects, what shall we call them ? 

Pupils. . Quality-words. 

Teacher. Right; what kind of words then are porous, absorbent, light, 
moist f 
The les son, extended to five qualities, — quite sufficient for the first, — 

will stand, — 

The sponge is opaque. 



The sponge 
The sponge 
The sponge 



is flexible. 
is elastic. 
is porous. 



The sponge is absorbent, 



Or thus : — 



f opaque, 
flexible, 
elastic, 
porous, 
absorbent. 
Or thus : The* sponge is opaque, flexible, elastic, porous, and absorbent. 



EXERCISES. 

I What qualities has a piece of India rubber, chalk, whalebone, wax, 

taper, lead, pine wood, silk, broadcloth ? What do you call each word you 
axe used ? Why f Write out each example as in the model. In the exam- 
ples, tell which is the object-word, and which the quality-word. 

II. In the same manner, mention the qualities of an apple, an orange, a 
piece of glass, a feather, a watch spring, a piece of granite, velvet, ivory, 
leather, charcoal, fur. What kind of words have you used f Why t 

III. Mention five objects that are white, and thus classify them ; five 
that are green ; flve that are yellow ; jive that are transparent ; five that are 
opaque ; five that are porous, &c. 

IV. Mention four objects that are soft, also four that are hard, and thus 
contrast them; four that are warm, and four that are cold; four that are 
flexible, and four that are inflexible ; jour that are elastic, and four that are 
anelctstic ; four that are sweet, and four that cere sour, &c. In Exercises 

III. IV., what loords have you used — object-words, or quality-words f 

V. Mention two objects that are equally long, short, smooth, fair, old, 
white, and thus compare them; also two, one of which is longer, shorter, 
smoother, &c, than the other; also several objects, one of which is longest, 
shortest, &c. 

VI. , How many fiyigers have you f Hoio many books, slates, knives, ap- 
ples, &c. and thus number them? What are the words which you have 
wed? Why do you call them adjectives ? 

VII. Tell which of 'the following words are nouns, and which adjectives, 
-and thus classify them : ink, black, coal, white, paper, carpet, soft young, 
stove, red, pencil, smooth, sharp, dull, steel, iron, hot, cold* book, bottle, 
«wiod, wafer. 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XIX 



LESSON IV. 

ACTIONS OF OBJECTS* 

Among the nr'i lions of objects which we see, all those 
ihat are alive have the power to move or act, and are 
classed as animate ; some others, as water, clouds, clocks, 
watches, &c, move when acted upon. All these move- 
ments are called, actions. Thus a dog runs a biid jlies. 
Now, runs or Jlies is not any thing apart from the object ; 
(see " Qualities of Objects ; ") it is only an attribute, which 
we call an action, just as we called another kind of attri- 
bute a quality. 

MODEL. 

Teacher. (The teacher says, Look yonder !) What is that ? 

Pupils. . (All answer.) A dog. 

Teacher. What does he do ? 

Pupils. . He bites. 

Teacher. And what do you see him do now ? 

Pupils. . He barks. 

Teacher. And what now ? 

Pupils. . He growls. 

Teacher. And what now ? 

Pupils. . He eats. 

Teacher. And what now ? 

Pupils. . He drinks. 

Teacher. Now write upon your slates " The actions of a dog ; " and undar- 

neath this heading write, " The dog bites ; " and underneath that, 

" The dog barks." Now, where is the action ? 
Pupils. . (All point to the dog.) 

Teacher. Where is the word which expresses the action ? 
Pupils. . (All point to their slates, or the blackboard.) 
Teacher. Now, which is the object ? 

* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. At first it will be well for the teacher to per- 
form some act himself, as writing, walking, or speaking. 2. Let him next suppose 
some object to move ; as ajish, a bird, an insect, and let the pupils be required to write 
any actions of which it is capable. 3. Let the full form at first be used ; as, " The dog 
bites;" " The dog barks," &c. ; afterwards employ the contracted forms. 4. As an 
oral exercise, think of some animal, and let each child, in turn, give one action of 
which it is capable. 5. When the children have become sufficiently familiar with 
the distinction, the word verb may be substituted for action-word. 6. When the pu- 
pils have advanced sufficiently far to see that some words are called verbs which do 
not express actions, they are prepared for a lesson like the Oral Exercise, on p. 50. 
7. In all tiie exercises carefully observe the rules of criticism. 



XX INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

Pupils. . (All point to the dog. 
Teacher. And where is the action ? 
Pupils. . (All point to the dog.) 

Teacher. Bnt is the dog both the object and the action ? 
Pupils. . The dog is the object, and the action is seen in the dog, or is 
performed by him. 

(Thus a distinction is made between an action and a word, and 
between an action and an object.) 
Teacher. Now, since the words bites, barks, growls, &c, are applied to ac- 
tions, and not to objects themselves, what shall we call these 
words ? 
Pupils. . Action-words. 
The lesson, extended to five actions, will stand thus : — 
The dog bites. 
The dog barks. 
The dog growls. 
The dog eats. 
The dog drinks. 
Or thus : — 

C bites, 
barks. 
The dog < growls, 

eats. 
( drinks. 
Or thus : — The dog bites, barks, groicls, eats, drinks 

EXERCISES. 

I. What actions can be performed by a horse, a man, a child, a trc.it, a 
robin, a toad, a grasshopper, a eii^ket, a soldier, a sailor, a shoemaker, a 
farmer, a musician ? JV7iat words have you employed f Why t 

II. What objects can sing, run, play, whistle, sleep, fly, write, study, 
ride, walk, swim, float, sink, burn, freeze^. melt, thaw ? What words have 
you used? Why? 

III. Tell which of the following words are nouns, which are adjectives, 
which are action-ioords, or verbs : Ship, mast, white, prow, ploughs, moves, 
sinks, boat, writes, shines, son, moon, drive, map, blows, buttons, sews, 
flexible, plane, plain. 



LESSON V. 

IDEAS AND WORDS, OR EXPRESSIONS OE IDEAS. 

When an object, as a hat, is placed before us, we say toe 
see it ; but when it is removed, and we continue to think of 
it, or call it to mind after thinking of something else, we say 
we seem to see it. It is as though the mind had an eye, arid 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XX 

couid see som nhing just like the real hat. It appear? 10 be 
in the same place, it has the same form, it is in every way 
just like it, only it may not be as distinct. That which we 
seem to see is to the eye of the mind what the real hat is to ^ 
that of the body. It is a kind of image or picture of the 
real hat, and is called an idea. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Now, suppose yourselves at home by the fireside. Think of all the ob- 
jects in the room, until you get distinct pictures of them. Let them seem 
to you just as if you were there ; then write their names in order, as you 
would do if you were there, or as you did in Lesson I. Note, suppose your- 
selves in a garden, a barn, a street, afield, a church, a mill, on a mountain, 
in the open air in a clear night, in a meadow, at sea, in a forest, and do the 
same. 

II. Mention any qualities of the objects which you seem to see in them. 

III. Mention any actions which you seem to see any of them perform. 

But when we have formed definite ideas of objects, we 
need some way to inform others what we have in our minds. 
When an object, as a dog, is before our eyes, we can point to 
it, and without saying a word, show to others what we wish 
them to see. But when we have only the idea, or picture 
before the eye of the mind, however distinct and impressive, 
that may be to us, we cannot show it to others. It can be 
seen only by our mental eye. In that case we must resort 
to signs, as will be seen in the following 

MODEL. 

Teacher. I have a distinct picture, or image, of a beautiful object before 
my mind's eye. I seem to see its form and colors. Do you 
see it ? 

Pupils. . We do not know what it is. 

Teacher. (The teacher takes from his desk a rose, and holds it up before 
the class, then places it back in Ithe desk.) How many now 
know what it is ? 

Pupils. . (All raise their hands.) 

Veaeher Now, I will give you a signal, and let us see, when I give it here- 
after, if you cannot call up the picture of the rose, so that all of 
us may be thinking of the same thing. 

(The teacher now gives some signal, as a motion of the hand, 
snapping the fingers, or touching the table, to which all agree as 
a signal to call to mind the rose, and, after turning the thoughts 



XXII 



INTRODUCTORY OOURSE. 



of the class upon something else, for a few moments, he sudden 
ly introduces the signal.) What do you think of now ? 

Pupils. . The rose. 

Teacher. Now, though you cannot see the picture of the rose in my mind, 
you have one in your own. And the signal tells you just when 
to call it up. Now, I have another beautiful picture in my mind. 
Do you know what it is ? 

Pupils. . We cannot tell without a signal. 

Teacher. I will give you a signal. (Here the teacher introduces a new sig- 
nal, such as snapping his fingers twice, or making some new mo- 
tion without any previous warning, and asks,) What new picture 
have you now in your minds ? 

Pupils. . (All hesitate ; finally one says,) We cannot tell what the signal 
. means. 

Teacher. Why can you not tell what the signal means now, as well as 
before ? 

Pupils. . Because we did not understand beforehand what it was to be 
the signal of. 

Teacher. Then, in order to make a signal good, there must be a mutual 
understanding among those who use it ; and then any outward 
sign may enable us to call up our ideas. We must, therefore, 
have a sign for a house, a sign for the sun, a sisrn for the moo?i, 
and a sign for every other object around us. Would such signs 
as I have given be gsbd for e ery object ? 

Pupils. . We could not make signs enough with our fingers for every 
object, (Here let the class give such thoughts as they may have 
about these signs.) 

Teacher. Instead of a motion of the hand, or a rap upon the table, if I 
should make a sound from my mouth, would that be a signal ? 

Pupils. It would, if we all agreeJra it, 

Teacher (The teacher makes some sound from the mouth, for the rose.) 
How many will take this as a sign for the rose ? 

Pupils. (All raise their hands.) 

Teacher (The teacher experiments with this new signal as before, then 
says,) If, instead of this, I should give you the sound r-o-s-e, as a. 
sign, I should give you the one to w r hieh not only this school, but 
all the people who speak the English language, have agreed. 
Or, if I should write on the blackboard thus, rose, these marks 
would be the signal to which all who can read the English lan- 
guage have agreed. These signs are called words ; and when they 
apply to objects, they are object-words, or names of objects. Now, 
when I point to the objects in the school room, you may give me 
the object- words, or names of the objects. (The teacher points 
out various objects, and the pupils give then names ; then reverses 
the exercise, he giving the name, and they pointing to the object. 
Finally, he gives the names of objects not present, asking the 
pupils to call to mind the idea of each, and raise their hands to 
show that they are thinking of it. 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE XXlll 

Gkwbrax Remirkon Idkas. — The ingenuity of the te.itnev, will generally sug- 
gest the best methods of testing the correctness of a child's conceptions, Perhaps the 
best general rule ii for the teacher, first of all, to imagine tho object present, or him- 
self in its presence, and bid the pupil do the same. Let it be recalled, not as a mere 
Something known to exist, but as an object having form, proportion, color, position, 
and dimensions; and let all these attributes be made to correspond with the reality. 
Thou, assuming that the pupil has done the same, proceed to question him minutely, 
as if the object were present. What is it ? What is near to it ? What is its general 
form? What is it like? On what does it stand or rest? Of what materials is it 
composed ? How long, how thick, how wide is it? What is its color, weight, and 
bulk ? Of what parts is it composed ? Does the s^in shine upon it ? ff so, on which 
side is its shadow ? What time in the day is it, then ? What surrounds it ? &c. 

Let the pupil answer directly from the ideas in his own mind, and his answers will 
usually reveal the correctness or incorrectness of these ideas. This practice of search- 
ing after the pupil's id as, more than any thing else, evinces the teacher's skill and 
power over the mental habits of his pupils. It should now be extended to every thing. 
The lessons in reading, geography, arithmetic, &c, should be enlivened by it. The aim 
of the teacher should be to make every thing in the school room real, earnest, practical, 
and lifelike, by awakening an interest in ideas rather than words. The principal de- 
sign in introducing object-lessons is to give greater life and reality to ideas. Let the 
pupil then conceive his ideas of absent objects as though there was a corresponding 
reality which he had just seen. When this can be done, lessons on objects may be 
dropped. When it cannot be done, the object should be referred to at any and every 
stage of progress. 



LESSON VI.* 

QUALITIES OF ACTIONS. 

In Lesson II. it was seen that objects possessed certain 
qualities, as smooth, rough, gentle ; it will now be seen that 
actions, or even qualities of objects, may themselves possess 
qualities, as will be shown in the following 

MODEL. 

Teacher (The teacher, calling the attention of the class, says,) How 

many see my hand move ? 
Pupils. . (All raise their hands in token of assent.) 
Teacher. (Moving his hand very slowly, he says,) How does it move? 
Pupils. . Slowly. 

Teacher. What slowly, hand ox moves 1 
Pupils. . Moves. 

Teacher. What then does slowly express a quality of? 
Pupils. . The action moves. 
Teacher. Now write upon your slates, " Qualities of Actions ; " and under 

it write, " The hand moves slowly." 

* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. At first it will be well to direct the attention 
of the learner, as in the model, only to adverbs of quality or manner. 2. Let him then 
see that words added to verbs showing when, where, why, are also adverbs. 3. Keep 
up the habit of criticism. 4. Let all the previous lessons be reviewed. 5. Give fre- 
quent examples in whic l the parts of speech shall be mingled. 6. Let the pupils 
wrire short sentences containing adverbs, or words answering the questions, How ? 
When ? Where? &c. 7. Do not advance too rapidly, and be careful to secure every 
point as you advance. 8. It will be well to give a subject and verb, and require the 
^lass to add any thing, whether a word or a group of words, that will express the timey 
place, or manner of the act. 



XXIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

Pupils. . (All write.) 

Teacher. (Moving his hand quickly, he says,) How does my hand move now? 

Pupils. . Quickly. . 

Teacher. Now write on your slates, " The hand moves quickly." 

Piqrils. (All write.) 

Teacher. Now, since quickly and slowly & mote the quality of an action, 

and not the action itself, what sh all we call them ? 
Pupils. . Action-quality-words. 
Teacher. Right ; and hence we hav& a new class of words, called action- 

quality-words, or adverbs. 

EXERCISES. 

I. How can a bird fly t a horse rim ? a flsh swim ? How does the sun 
shine f the ship sail f the farmer labor ? the carpenter build f the boy study f 

II. JJTiich of the following icords are adverbs ? which nouns? which 
verbs ? and which adjectives t 

Nail, hammer, pleasantly, heaps, thaw, elm, grows, rapidly, renews, 
tractive, sweetly, fiercely, temptation, points, hopefully, otter, ber 
weasel, musingly, weaves, hopes, point, lace, diamonds, wears, nervo 
meaningly. 



LESSON VII. 

RELATION OF OBJECTS. 

When two objects are ir.-any way connected, or when an 

object is connected with an attribute of another, they are 

related, or there is a relation between them. What these 

relations are will be best seen by the following lesson : — 

Teacher. (The teacher takes a book and a piece of paper, and places the 
latter on the former.) "Where is the paper ? 

Pupils. . On the book. 

Teacher. (Placing it under the book.) . Where is the paper now ? 

Pupils. . Under the book. 

Teacher. (Placing the paper in the book.) Has the paper changed its re- 
lation ? * 

Pupils. . It has ;,it is in the book. 

Teacher. (The teacher now changes the position of the paper, so as to place 
it over, above, below, beside, near, &c, and then he moves it from 
the book.) What is the relation of its motion to the book ? 

Pupils . It moves from the book. 

Teaclier. (The paper approaches the book.) What is the relation of the 
motion to the book ? 

Pupils. . It moves towards the book. 

* Using a word while acting out its application is the best possible definition 
Children thus learn the meaning of words even before they can sp> ik. 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XX* 

readier. What shall wc call such words as on, tinder, in, &c, si^ce they 

show a relation t 
Pupils. . Relation-words. 

In this way the various relations of .one object to another, or of an ob- 
ject to an attribute of another, may be illustrated to the eye, so as to be 
impressed upon the mind. 

The teacher may now place two objects upon a book, a piece of imper 
and a pen. Now, what arc on the book ? The^answer is, The paper and 
the pen. Here is a new relation-word, used to combine ox join two objects 
in the same relation to the book. He places the book behind him, and 
takes off one of the objects, assuring them that one object is on the book. 
What can you say now' is on the book ? The answer is, The paper or the 
pen. The teacher asks, Which ? Some one guesses the paper ; he pre« 
sents the book with the pen on it, and says, Not the paper, but the pen. 
And, or, and but are combination-words. 

EXERCISES. 

Now point out the relation-words in the following expressions, and tell 
whether txoo objects are related, or an object and an attribute : The hoicse on 
the hill; the dog in the manger ; the slipper under the table; running to 
school; living by a river ; standing beside a well ; a dog and a fox running 
over a wall ; a needle or a pin in a cushion. 



LESSON VIII. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

"We have seen that some words" are used to name objects f 
some to denote qualities of objects, some the actions of ob- 
jects, some the qualities of attributes, (that is, actions or 
qualities,) some the relation of objects, and some the com- 
bination of objects. We may now take these characteristics 
(see Lesson III., Exercise III., p. xviii.,) as the basis for 
grouping these words into classes, thus : — 

Words denoting objects = object-words — Nouns. 

Words "denoting qualities of objects = quality-words = Adjectives 
Words denoting actions of objects = action-words = Verbs. 
Words denoting quality of attri- ?_$ attribute- \_ a^,,,,^^ 

butes ........ \ — I quality-words J-advlrb&.. 

Words denoting relation of objects = relation-words = Preposition?;:. 
Words denoting combination of ) __ ( combination- ) _ covtuxcttoxs 

objects )~( words \~~ 

Words denoting emotion * . . ,= emotion-words = Interjections. 

* The interjection has not been illustrated like the other classes, for the obvious 
reason that it denotes neither an object, attribute, nor relation, but simply a sudden 
emotion or feeling of the speaker. Its use and characteristics can easily be il lustrat- 
ed in a way similar to the others. Let the teacher show what would be a natural 
exclamation when joyous, sad, in pain, or when sudden fear comes over us. 

Let the pupil now know that words thus classified are called parts of speech. 
C 



XXV* INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 



EXERCISES. 

I. Select the nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the following . The oi 
draios the cart. The birds sing a charming song. The fierce wind pens 
tmtes the cottage of the peasant. 

II. Select the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in the fol 
lowing : The dag passed pleasantly away. The cup stood on the table 
John and James have just arrived. The wind bleio gently over the field 
The moon and stars shine beautifully upon the lake. 

III. Select the nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, 
conjunctions, and interjections, from paragraphs in your reading 
lesson. 

IV. Take an object, as an apple, and illustrate, by means of it, a noun 
an adjective, a verb, an adverb, and, in connection with some other object, (ax 
a knife,) a preposition, and a conjunction. 



LESSON IX. 

COMBINATION OF WORDS. 

An object is always intimately related to its own attributes, 
since the latter are always found in the former. Hence the 
words which represent an object and one of its attributes 
may be combined to show this relation, as may he seen by 
the following j 

MODEL. 

Teacher. Suppose two birds, one black and the other white, were standing 

upon a tree, and }*ou wish to distinguish one of them from the 

other ; how could you show which one you mean ? 
Piqrils. . By saying, The black bird, or white bird. 
Teacher. Right ; and you would place the object, bird, and its own quality, 

black or white, in relation to each other by combining the words 

which represent each, Is there any word to show their relation ? 
Pupils. . There is none. 
Teacher. Now, suppose I do not know the color of the bird, and you wish 

to tell me its color. What would you say : 
Pupils. . We should say, The bird is black; or, The bird is white. 
Teacher. Right ; and you would, again, place the object, bird, and its own 

quality, black or white, in relation to each other. Would they be 

in the* same order as before ? 
Pupils. . They would not. Then, the quality- word was placed before the 

object-word; now, it is placed after it. 
Teacher. Does any thing show the relation between them ? 
Pupils. . Is shoics or tells that the quality black belongs to the bird. 
Teacher. Now, suppose two birds are alike, but one is standing upon a 

tree, and the other flying around it. How could you distinguii h 

the latter ? 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXV11 

Pupils. . We would say, The flying bird. 

Teacher. You would place the object, bird, and its own action, flying, in 

relation to each other. Is there any word to show their relation ? 
Pupils. . There is none. 
Teacher. But suppose I did not know what the bird was doing ; how would 

you tell me ? 
Pupils. . We should say, The bird is flying. 
Tcachei'. So you would, again, place the object, bird, and its action, flying, 

in relation to each other. Would they be in the same order as 

before ? 
Pupils. . They would not. The action is now mentioned after the object. 

Then, it was mentioned before it. 
Teacher. Is there any word to show the relation between them ? 
Pupils. . The same word is says that the action was performed by the bird. 
Teacher. Suppose, again, that there were two persons having the same 

name George, the one a carpenter, and the other a farmer. How 

could we distinguish the one from the other. 
Pupils. . We could say, George the carpenter. 
Teacher. You would place the name George and the name indicating his 

occupation in relation to each other. Is there any word to show 

the relation ? 
Pupils. . There is none. 
Teacher. Now, suppose I did not know his occupation, and you were to 

tell me. How would you do it ? 
Pupils. . We should say, George is a carpenter. 
Teacher. You would, again, place the two names in relation to each other, 

and, as before, you would place is between them to show or tell 

the occupation. When we wish to connect an object with one of 

its own attributes, what two different states of mind may we 

represent ? 
Pupils. . We may distinguish one object from another, or we may say 

something of an object. 
Teachei'. Right : now review Lesson III., and then perform the following 

examples : — 

EXERCISES. 

I. Give the qualities of sealing wax, an apple, salt, whalebone, ivory, gold, 
the dew, a brook, a tree. 

II. Give the actions of a bee, a serpent, a scholar, a robin, a toad, a 
sparroio, a goat. 

III. Give some word to express the occupation, character, or office of 
Washington, Webster, Columbus, Arnold. 

IV. Distinguish any of the objects in (I.) by some quality ; in (II.) 
by some action ; in (III.) by some office, occupation, or character. 

V. Tell or declare the qualities * of the objects in (I.), the action in 
(II.), the office, &c, in (III.) 

* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. It may now be said to the learner, that when 
we distinguish the object by its quality, action, or office, it is supposed that all know 
that by which we thus distinguish it ; the quality, or action, &c, is then assumed to be- 
long to the object ; but when we say or tell what belongs to the object, we then affirm, 
declare, or predicate what before was assumed. Thus, in the expression " White 
sfciow," white is assumed -, but in the expression " The snow is white," the same quality 



XXvfij INTRODUCTORY COURSE, 

VI. As the teacher exhibits the qualities of glass, first assume, and then 
predicate them singly. 

VII. Take any two qualities ; assume one, and predicate the other. Then 
reverse the order, assuming the predicated, and predicating the assumed 
quality. 

VIII. Assume any two, and predicate any iioo ; as, The smooth, thin 
glass is brittle and transparent. Reverse the order ; assume one, and predi- 
cate the rest. Predicate one, and assume the others. Assume all ; predi- 
cate all. 



LESSON X. 

THE FROPOSITON. 

When an attribute is predicated of an object to which it be- 
longs,— as, " Gold is yellow," — the group of words is called 
a proposition ; but when the attribute is assumed, as, " Yel- 
low gold," the group is not a proposition. The object is 
then said to be restricted, limited, or distinguished. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Take some attribute of the following objects, and form propositions . 
Grass, cherries, lilies, vapor, horses, rabbits, butterflies, ice, Solomon , 
Abraham. 

II. Tell which of the following expressions are propositions, and ichich 
are not : The sub is shining. The winds are blowing. Growing tree 
The water flows, jpeter the Hermit. David was king. Isaiah prophesied 
An heroic general- 
Ill Add to or change the following words between the periods so as to 

form propositions : Weather cold. Grass grow. Hen cackle. Solon wise 
man. He live. Nut fall. Ice melt. River flow. Bridges breaks. Boy 
drown. He cry. Helen poor. Report heard. Apples decays. Melon 
grow. 

IV. Change or vary the proposition, " The bird flies," so as to show thai 
more than one bird performed the act — that the act was performed yester- 
day-— that the act is to take place to-morrow -— tell ichich words you 
have changed. 

is predicated. 2. Let the teacher take, in the presence of the class, some object, as 
a piece of sponge, glass, or paper, and develop, as in Lesson III., its qualities, and 
let the pupils assume and then predicate each quality ; thus, ; ' Soft sponge. The 
sponge is soft." 3. Multiply examples, if necessary, till the distinction between predi* 
eating and assuming shall be understood. 



COURSE. XXIX 



LESSON XI. 

THE PROPOSITION ENLARGED. 

In Lesson X. the proposition contains but two parts — that 
which contains the attribute, called the subject, and the at- 
tribute itself, which is affirmed of the subject, and hence 
called the predicate. When the subject is not an individual 
name, or when the predicate does not represent some par- 
ticular act, it is necessary to add words to each, for the pur- 
pose of explaining or individualizing them. 

MODEL. 
(1.) «* King died." 
(2.) " The king died." 
(3.) " The good king died." 
(4.) " The good king Edward VI. died." 

(5.) " The good king Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII. , died." 
(6.) " The good king Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., died in the 

sixteenth year of his age.*' 
(7.) " The good king Edward VL, the son of Henry VIII. , died in the 

sixteenth year of his age, and the seventh year of his reign." 

The effect of individualizing an object may be seen from 
die following 

MODEL. 

Teacher. If each object in the universe had a distinct and separate name, 

how many names should we have ? 
^upils. . We could not count them ; there would be as many names as 

objects. 
Teacher. If you could not count them, could you ever commit them to 

memory ? 
Pupils. . Never ; for there would be as many different names as there are 

different trees, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, &c. We could not count 

all the individual fishes in a lifetime. 
Teacher. If every individual object had an individual name, how could we 

distinguish one object from another ? 
Pupils. . Simply by giving its name. 
Teacher. True ; not only each man ww*l^h ave a name, but each tree, dog, 

horse, fish, &c, &c, ; and the mention of that name would draw 

the attention to one object, and exclude all others. But since 

we cannot give individual names to all oojects, what shall we do ? 
Pupils. . (Probably none will answer.) 
Veacher Here is an object which we call a pen, ~ud nere is another object 

like it • what shall we call this ? 



*X-X INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

Pupils. . We call that a pen, too. 

Teacher. Very well ; now, if I say pen, can you tell which one I mean ? 

Pupils. . We cannot ; for we think of one as well as the other. 

Teacher. Now, suppose one is a metallic pen, and the other is a quill pen ; 
how could you point me to the individual pen which you mean r 

Pupils. . By saying, metallic pen. 

Teacher. Right ; and metallic pen would be just as good as an individual 
name ; in other words, metallic would help you to individualize 
the pen by excluding the other. But suppose I should present 
you another object like these two ; what would you call that ? 

Pupils. . We should call that &pe?i. 

Teacher. Now, suppose this new one to be a metallic pen ; how could ycu 
individualize it ? 

Pupils. . We would say metallic pen. 

Teacher. Yes ; but you have two metallic pens, (the teacher holding iliem 
up.) Which one do you mean ? 

Pupils. . The small pen. 

Teacher. Yes ; but the quill pen is a small one, as you see, (the teacher 
holding it up.) 

Piqrils. . We mean " the small metallic pen." 

Teacher. Yery good ; and small metallic pen is just as good as an individ- 
ual name. It distinguishes the pen you mean from the oth^r 
two. But suppose 'all the pens in the world were to be prr - 
sented to you, one at a time, what would you call each ? 

Pupils. . A pen. 

Teacher. Then suppose there were many millions of them ; would the* 
each have a name ? 

Pupils. . They would. 

Teacher. Would they each have ;an individual name ? 

Pupils. . They would not. 

Teacher. Would they each have a different name ? 

Pupils. . They would not ; each would b we the same name. 

Teacher. They would have one name in common ; hence called a common 
name to distinguish it from an individual or proper name. But 
do no objects have individual names ? Can you mention one ? 

Pupils. . (One speaks.) Is not George an individual name ? 

Teache?\ Why do you think so ? 

Pupil. . I notice when you say "boy," all the boys in school look up as 
though you called them all ; but when you say " George," we all 
know what one you mean. 

Teacher. Right ; George is a proper name ; so, you see, he has two names 
— a proper name, George, and a common name, boy. If I use the 
common name, how can I show whom I mean ? 

Pupils. . By individualizing him. 

Teacher. Right ; so I might say, " That small black-eyed eoy, who sits in 
the corner of the room, near the door; "or I might say George. 
Which would you prefer ? 

Pupils. . We should prefer George. 

Teacher. But most objects have only common names ; how can we point 
out ir.dividuals among such objects ? 

Pupils. . Only T >y individualizing them. 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXXI 

Teacher. Now, all words, and groups of words, whether they denote quali- 
ty or not, when used to individualize an object, (not an attribute,) 
are called adjective. Hence "that" "small," "black-eyed," 
" who sits in the corner, near the door," are all adjective expres- 
sions. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Tell what individual name is the same as the following general 
names individualized : The man -who crossed the Atlantic, and discovered 
the new world. The man who commanded the American army, defeated 
the British forces , and was styled the father of his country. 

II. Use a general name, and so individualize it, that it may designate 
Lafayette, Franklin, or Peter the Great. 

III. Many common names, as tree, cloud, house, imect, fish, have no cor- 
responding individual name. Take any ten of these, and so limit them that 
each will denote an individual. 

The effect of individualizing or limiting an action may be 
seen from the following 

MODEL. 

Teacher. In the expression, " The bird moves through the air," what one 

word can be substituted for those in Italics ? 
Pupils. . Flies. 
Teacher. Then flies = moves through the air. Will you add something to 

limit the action in the following example, "The horse ran''"! 

Show how he ran. 
Pupils. . The horse ran slowly. 

Teacher. Now, add something to show ichm the horse ran. 
Pupils. . The horse ran in the morning. 

Teacher. What does the expression " in the morning" exclude ? 
Pupils. . It excludes any running; which took place at night, at noon, or 

any other time than morning. 
Teacher. Will you add something to show where the horse ran ? 
Pupils. . The horse ran in the street. 
Teacher. Will you add something to limit the verb in the example, " The 

boy opened"? Show what he opened. 
Pupils. . (Individually.) 1st. The boy opened his knife. 2d. The boy 

opened his eyes. 3d. The boy opened the door. 4th. The boy 

opened a book. 
Teacher. Add something to show why he opened it. 
Pupils. The boy opened the book to read. 
Teach-er. Now, how many different kinds of questions have you answered 

by adding these words ? See if you can recall them. 
Pupils. . f Separately . ) 1st. We answered the question how f 2d. We 

answered the question ichen? 3d. We answered the question 

where'? 4th. We answered the question whatf oth We an 

gwered the question why? 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 



EXERCISES. 

I. Put the following words into propositions; then enlarge them by lim- 
iting their subjects : — 

Trees beautiful. Cloud disappear. "Vapor rise. Dog bark. Wind 
piercing. Water now. Flowers bloom. Ice melt. King reign. Ape 
climb. Vulture tear. Boy boisterous. Child gentle. Serpent crawl. 
Frog hop. Bee buzz. 

II. Make propositions of the following ', and enlargi them by completing 
the meaning of the verb :-— 

Bov buy, (what.) Bee eat. Storm have broken. Dogs have devour. In- 
sect destroy. Eagle see. Lady find. Ink stain. Man see. Washing- 
■ m defeat. Arnold betray. Hawk catch. Mouse destroy. 

Thus, The boy bought a pencil. 

III. Tell when the following events happened : — 

Columbus discovered America, (when.) The Pilgrims reached New 
England. Charlestown was burned. The people walked. The sun rises.* 
The moon sets.* The dew disappears. Twilight commences. The storm 
abated. * 

IV. Tell where the following Jiappened : — 

The British were defeated, (where.) Moses was concealed. Jesus was 
crucified. Congress was assembled. Webster died. Washington was 
buried. The stranger stopped. The army encamped. The Pilgrims land- 
ed. The old worn-out soldier slept. 

V. Tell how the following happened : — 

The dog was killed, (how.) The fire was kindled. The pupil wrote his 
copy. The cars move. Harriet plays. The horses ran. The water falls. 

VI. Tell why the following happened : — 

My father has kindled a fire, (why.) Children go to school. The mer- 
chant buys goods. The mother sings to her chlid. The messenger came. 
The wall is made around the garden. 

VII. Limit the subjects and predicate* of the following, in any of the 
above ways : — 

Winter has come. The ducks were summing. The tree fell. The mice 
gnawed. The weeds were removed. The fountain failed. The street was 
crowded. The lecture was delivered. The coachman drove. 

VIII. Point out the subjects, predicates, and limiting parts in the last 
exercise. 

IX. Tell all the nouns, adjectives, or adjective expressions, adverbs, or 
adverbial expressions, prepositions, and conjunctions in the last exercise. 

X. Make propositions of your own, and limit them as above, telling 
what part of speech each word is. 

* Let the pupils ascertain the time of rising and setting for the day when the les- 
son is given out 






INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXXIU 

LESSON XII. 

IMPLIED RELATONS. 

We have seen how one object may be related to another 
object, or to the attributes of another object ; also, how an 
object may be related to its own attributes. We are now to 
show how an object and an attribute — that is, how a prop- 
osition — is related to him who speaks it or zorites it. There 
rrmst be three parties. 1st. Some one must speak. 2d. 
Some one must be spoken to. 3d. Some person, or some 
thing, must be spoken of. 

MODEL. 

Teacher. When Joseph said to his brethren, " Does my father yet live ? * 
who was the first party ? 

Pupils. . Joseph. 

Teacher. And who was the second ? 

Pupils. . His brethren. 

Teacher. Right ; who was the third ? 

Pupils. . His father. 

Teacher. Very well ; and when he said, " I am Joseph/' who was the 
speaker or first party ? 

Pupils. . Joseph. 

Teacher. Right ; and who the hearers, or second party ? 

Pupils. . His brethren. 

Teacher. And who the third, or person spoken of ? 

Pupils. . (All hesitate — one says,) He spoke of himself. 

Teacher. Very good. Then the parties stand, 1st, Joseph ; 2d, his breth- 
ren ; 3d, Joseph. How many of the parties does Joseph represent ? 

Pupils. . Two ; the 1st and 3d. 

Teacher. "When Joseph said, " Ye shall not see my face except your broth 
er be with yon," who was the speaker ? 

Pupils. . Joseph. 

Teache?. Who were the hearers ? 

Pupils. . His brethren. 

Teacher. Now, if Joseph, stranger as he was to his brethren, had said, 
" This do and live, for Joseph fears God," instead of saying, " 7 
fear God," would they have understood that he was speaking of 
himself ? 

Pupils, . They would not. 

Teacher If a person by the name of Frank should say, (meaning him- 
self,) "Frank wrote a letter," would the hearer know that he 
meant himself? 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 



Pupils. . 
Teacher. 



Pupils. . 
Teacher. 



Pupil 
Teacher. 



Pupils. . 
Teacher. 

Pupils. . 
Teacher. 



Pupils. , 
Teach r. 



Pupils. . 
Teacher, 
Pupils. , 
Teacher, 



Teacher, 



Pupils. , 
Teacher 



He would not. 

Then, when a speaker is at the same time the actor, i. e., repre* 
sents two parties, he cannot be understood to be the speaker 
when he uses the name of the actor. Thus, if we had the words, 
" Alexander conquered," no one would suppose that Alexander 
said that. Now, how can we show both that Alexander con- 
quered, and that Alexander said it ? 

If he should say, " I conquered," 7 would show that he both did 
it and said it. 

That is right ; I is used instead of Alexander, to show that the 
actor and the speaker are both one. Sometimes the hearer and 
the actor are both cne. What shall we do then ? 
(No one answers.) 

"When a teacher speaks to George, and says, "You write well," 
the teacher is the speaker ; but who is the actor, and who the 
hearer ? 

George is both actor and hearer. 

But, suppose the teacher should say, " George writes well," who 
w T ould be the actor, and who the hearer ? 
George would be the actor, and those present the hearers. 
Then, in order to put George at the same time in the relation of 
hearer and actor, we must say, "You write well."* Shall we 
drop the name when we speak of George simply as the actor ? 
We need not. 

But, suppose I were to say, " George wrote a letter, and George 
carried the letter to George's teacher, and George's teacher com- 
mended George for George's neat letter." Would the expression 
be agreeable ? 

It would not, because George is repeated so often. 
How could you avoid the repetition ? 
By using he, his, and him. 

But suppose the same thing had been said of Elizabeth ; would 
you use he, his, and him f . . 
By no means ; but she and hey . 

Suppose I should say of my hat, " My hat was made in New 
York, and my hat was brought to Boston, where I bought my 
hat ; " what would you do ? 
We would use it, instead of hat. 

Very good. Now, these three parties are called persons; the 
speaker is called thejirst person ; the hearer the second; and the 
actor, or one spoken of, (whether a person or thing,) the third. 
When the speaker wishes to represent himself, he cannot use his 
name, but must use some other word, as, I ; when he wishes to 
represent the hearer, he must use thou or you ; when he wishes 
to represent the person or thing spoken of, he may use the 
name, but to avoid repetition he uses he, she, it, &c. Now, these 
words, I, thou, or you, he, she, it, and others, are employed in- 
stead of nouns to represent these several relations. They there- 
fore are called Pronouns, (instead of nouns.) What new part 
of speech or class of words have we ? 



* Here >et the teacher show that we sometimes introduce the name of the hearer, as 
the person addressed — " George, you write well." Let both forms be adopted in the 
exercises, requiring the insertion of a comma after the name. 



INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXXI 

Pupils. . Pronouns.* 

Feacher. Now, give all the classes of words, or parts of speech. 

EXERCISES. 

T. Make the subjects in the following sentences represent both the acton 
and the spea7cers : — 

Jacob loved Joseph. Cain slew Abel. Columbus was aided by the 
Queen of Spain. William the Conqueror defeated Harold. Thus, I lo?ed 
Joseph. 

II. Make the same represent the hearers ; thus, You loved Joseph. 

III. Make the objects in the above examples denote the speakers — 
the hearer ; thus, Jacob loved me. 

IV. Put the following words into propositio?is, and (1.) make the event 
appear to take place at the time the words are spoken, (present ;) (2.) 
before they are spoken, (past;) (3.) after they are spoken, (future :) — 

Wind blow. Corn grow. Hail rattle. Thunder roar. Fire bum. Ox 
graze. Snow molt. Vapor climb. Dog worry cat. Mouse catch trap. 
Play child barn in. Squirrel tree up run. Thus, The corn grows. The 
corn grew. The corn will groio. 

V. Put the same into propositions, so as to show that the event actually 
takes place ; then, so as to show, not that it takes place, bat that it may, 
can, or must take place ; thus, The corn grows. The corn may grow, 
(but does not grow.) 

VI. Alter the nouns so as to make them mean more than one f and set 
what change takes place in the verb or predicate. 



GRAMMAR. 

We have been studying things, and what belong to things 
ideas, and the way to express ideas ; words, and the way tc 
form, alter, and classify them ; propositions or sentences 

* Directions to the Teacher. — The relation of persons gives rise to the person- 
al pronoun. The pronoun is not needed, like the noun, to represent an idea, but to 
represent the relation of the parties necessarily implied in social intercourse. These 
pronouns should be fully illustrated to the children. They all show a relation to the 
speaker. The relation affects- both the subject and predicate. Let its effect be illus- 
trated thus : Suppose I say, " James reads ; " what change would take place if Japes 
himself should express the same thought? He would say, " I read." Let the pupila 
explain the changes in both words. Now, if I should express the same thought to 
James, I should say, " You read." What changes take place? 

The relation of person is here introduced particularly in order to develop the 
pronoun. Besides this, there are necessarily two other relations to the speaker. When 
the speaker states an event, he assumes the moment of speaking as the point from 
which to reckon time, and places the event at that time, or throws it into the past or 
future, as the fact may require. But this relation requires no new part cf speech. It 
affects only the predicate ; as, "James is writing, was writing, or will be writing." 

Again : the speaker looks upon an event which he is about to record as something 
real, as when a house is actually burned, or as something imaginary, as when we 
think, — " What if the house should be burned ! " It is not actually burned. Now, this 
distinction requires a different mode of speaking. The teacher should illustrate these 
points, as well as the relation of number, before entering upon the body of this book. 



XXXVI INTRODUCTORY COURSE. 

and the way to form them, and the parts which compose 
them. Now, all this prepares the way to study grammar. 
Much o.' it is grammar— all, indeed, that has taught us to 
speak and write correctly. But grammar, arranged sys- 
tematically, considers whatever pertains to simple sounds , 
and the letters which represent them ; whatever pertains to 
words, the changes they undergo, and the classes to which 
they belong ; whatever pertains to sentences, the parts which 
compose them, the relation, agreement, dependence, and 
government of these parts ; whatever pertains to the forma- 
tion of verse, or the arrangement of language so as to pro- 
duce the agreeable effect of measure. All these are em- 
braced in grammar ; it teaches us the principles which should 
guide in using language correctly. 



Suggestions to the Teacher. — It will be seen, throughout this introductory 
course, that the aim has been to state nothing dogmatically, but to draw from the stores 
which the pupil already possesses, those fact-, which, being placed in new relations, 
may evolve the principle aimed at. In the full course which follows excepting the Oral 
Exercises, the opposite method is pursued. The principle is first stated, and then the 
illustrations are given ; yet the teacher, throughout the entire course, should adopt the 
inductive method, whenever a difficult lesson is to be presented for the first time. The 
inductive method is invaluable in helping a feeble or undisciplined mind to compre- 
hend elementary principles, and to group them into more general rules. When prin 
ciples are fully understood, the comprehensive rule or definition should be committed 
to memory. The teacher cannot be too careful to insist upon this. Every general 
rule or definition should be thoroughly learned and used. Let the learner now unter 
upon the main course ; let every point be understood as he advances, and his 
will be satisfactory both to himself and his tc.icher. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar treats of the principles and usages of 
the English language ; it teaches us to speak and write it 
correctly. 

Rem. — Grammar is not a code of laws made for the language, but rather 
derived from the language in its present state. It is the province of the 
grammarian to interpret and classify the analogies and usages of the lan- 
guage so as to present them in a condensed and systematic view. Over 
the laws of language he has no control, or rather he has the same kind of 
control that the naturalist has over the laws of the physical world, and no 
other. He does not make the rules of grammar ; he only exhibits what 
already exists. That the " verb agrees with* its nominative in number and 
person," is not an authoritative edict from the grammarian. It existed as a 
law of language long before he discovered and published it. It was none 
the less imperative before he uttered it, and becomes no more so because he 
has uttered it. True, the fact that it is drawn out, and distinctly stated, 
makes it better known — more widely understood — and, it may be, more 
generally obeyed. And herein consists the advantage of the study of 
grammar : he who knows the laws of language has before him a standard 
by which he may test his own expressions, w T liile he who yields only an 
unconscious obedience to usage is never sure when or why he is right, nor 
when or why he is wrong. Entering upon the study of grammar with 
these views, the learner, aided bv his teacher, comes in contact with the 
language itself ; he himself becomes a discoverer of analogies and principles, 
it may be, not even noted by the grammarian ; and even if they are, he re- 
ceives his greatest pleasure from the impression, that he is confirming, rather 
than blindly obeying, the statement of another. 

It teaches how to combine letters into syllables, syllables 
into words, and words into sentences, either in prose or verse. 

Grammar is divided into four parts — Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters 
which represent them, and the combination of letters into 
syllables and words. 

Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and 
various modifications of words. 

Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 
1 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the ietters whi-i 
represent them, and the combination of letters into syllables 
and words. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

The teacher, calling the attention of the class, says, Listen ! Then giving 
the sound of a in name, How many heard my voice f Giving again the 
sound of s as in s-in, (not the name ess, but the hissing sound alone,) he 
says, Did you then hear my voice, or only a whispering soiaidf Ans. Only 
a whispering sound. Listen again ! giving, in the same manner, the 
sound of/", he says, Did you hear a voice-sound, or a breath-sound 1 Ans. 
A breath-sound. With the same position of the organs, he adds a slight 
vocality, producing the sound of v. Do you hear any voice now ? He tries 
the same with p, and passes from p to b ; then from t to d, from k to g, 
from s to z, from ch toj, from sh to zh, and thus shows the difference be- 
tween a breath-sound, and a breath-sound mingled with a slight voice-sound. 
Then, again, recalling their attention to such sounds as a, e, i, o, u, by 
examples from his own voice, always to be repeated by the class, he causes 
them to observe and note the distinctions. They are now prepared for the 
following definitions : — 

An elementary sound is the simplest sound of the language ; 
as, a, e ; o, k. 

The English language contains about forty elementary 
sounds. 

CLASSES OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

These sounds are divided into three classes — vocals, sub- 
vocals, and aspirates. 

The vocals consist of pure tone only ; as, a, e, i, o, u. 

The subvocals consist of tone united with breath ; as, h, d 
I, m, n, r. 

The aspirates consist of pure breath only ; as, p, t, lc,f. 

Vocals are subdivided into long and short. 

The long sound is one that can be protracted at pleasure ; 
as, may ay, bee — ee. 

The short sound is one formed by the same position of the 
organs, but uttered with an explosive effort — pin, pen, hat, sit 

Rem. 1. — The a in hat is properly the short sound of a in fare, not a in 
hate The short sound of a in mate is e in met, as any one may see by 



ORTHOGRAPHY ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 3 

placing th) organs in a position to give a and explode the sound. The a 
mpin is the short sound of ee in seen ; sometimes represented by ee as in 
oeew, (bin.) The o in not is the short sound of o in nor, not o in ?iot6 
The u in put is the short sound of oo in &oo/i;. The u in <fw£ is the short 
found of u in f it)', not u in mttfe. 

Rem. 2. — Some of the subvocals, like vocals, may be prolonged ; as, /, m, 
*, r, th, v y 10, y, z, zh. Others are incapable of prolongation ; as, b, d, g, j, x. 

The latter class are sometimes, though not properly, called ?nutes. 

TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 



Focals. 


Subvocals. 


Aspirates. 




CorrcZartr&J. 


1. a-l-e* 


1. 6-a-t 


1. f-ai'tll 


1. 


6-o-w 


= p-o-\-e 


2. f-a-r 


2. d-o-g 


2. A-o-m-e 


2. 


rf-o-g 


= £-o-n 


3. b-a-11 


3. g-o 


3. a-r-£ 


3. 


g-e-t 


= k-i-n-d 


4. h-a-t 


4. J-o-y 


4. j^-i-n-e 


4. 


th-i-s 


= £A-u-m-b 


5. m-e 


5. l-o-t 


5. s-u-n 


5. 


j-o-b 


= cA-i-n 


6. m-e-t 


6. m-a-n 


6. *-a-k-e 


6. 


r-a-n 


= /-a-n 


7. f-e-n-e 


7. w-o 


7. th-i-n-k 




v-i-n-e 


= s-o-n 


8. p-z-n 


8. s-o-n-g 


8. $/?-o-n-e 


8. 


a-z-u-r-e 


= sA-u-t 


9. g-o-l-d 


9. b-a-r 


9. cA-u-r-1 








10. m-o-v-e 


10. thrl-8 


10. wh-e-n 








11. n-o-t 


11. v-a~t 










12. m-u-t-e 


12. w-i-s-e 










13. p-tt-11 


13. z-o-n-e 










14. c-«-p 


14. a-z-u-r-e 










15. f-ow-n-d 


15. y-e-s 











The following subvocals, I, m, n, r, z, v, are sometimes called semivow* 
c& ; the first four are called liquids. 

Note. — By what rule such sounds as f, s, or c soft, which have no vo- 
cality whatever, can be called semivowels, it is impossible to see. 

The aspirates and subvocals are sometimes divided according to the or- 
gans of speech chiefly employed in forming them. Thus, labials, p, b,f, 
v ; dentals, t, d, s, z; palatals, g soft and j ; gutturals, k, q, c, and g hard ; 
nasals, m and n; and Unguals, I and r. 

EXERCISE. 

The folloxcing words contain the different elementary sounds in the Ian- 
ffuage. Titter first the word, and then the element printed in Italics. 

Vocals. N-a-me, f-a-r, b-a-11, a-t ; m-e, m-e-t ; f-z-ne, p-i-n ; s-o-id, 
m-o-ve, n-o-t ; m-w-te, p-w-11, c-w-p ; f-ow-nd. 

* Suggestions to the Teacher. — The learner should be taught here to give 
attention to the sounds only, not the characters employed to represent them. The 
teacher's voice must be his guide. The character is often deceptive. The pupil 
should be made to appreciate the above classification, by actually producing the 
sounds and noting the difference. In teaching these sounds, a whole word should 
be given at first, and then one element after another may be dropped, till the pro- 
posed one is left alone. Thus, fate, — fa, — a; ball, — ba, — a; men, — me, — m ; 
date, — da, — d. 

In exercises on the correlatives, the teacher will do well to give them in pairs, 
thus : b — p, d — t, g — k, th — th, &c. After having secured a distinct utterance of 
them in pairs, he wfll find it easy to show the learner that the subvocal b, for instance, 
is the same as the aspirate p, combined with a slight vocality. The aspirate being 
given, as /, the corresponding subvocal, that is, its correlative, v, will be fouvd bv 
adding a slight vocality, while the organs preserve the same position. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Stje^ocals. I?-at, d-og, g-o,j~oy, Mfe, m-an, n-o, so-ng, ba-r, #*-ose, 
f-oice, w-ise, y-es, z-one, a-2-ure. 

Aspirates. jP-aith, A-at, ar-&, p-ine, s-urn, £-ake, £/*-ink, sA-one, 
rA-urch, wA-en. 

Te^ 5?/ the sound which letters in the following promiscuous examples an 
vocals, which are subyocals, and ichich are aspirates: — 

And, great, made, fame, sad, mete, gave, life, voice, six, zebra, full, sup, 
dine, bid, bag, kite, pare, when, this, shall, ocean, king, feel, drive, make, 
link. 

Telly in the last examples, which vowels are long, and which are short. 
\ 
LETTERS. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Having drilled the class sufficiently on all the elementary sounds, the 
teacher, standing at the blackboard, utters an elementary sound, as s, and 
says, Now, suppose I make this mark -f- on the board ; will you all give 
me the sound when 1 point to the mark ? Then, giving another sound, 
as a, he makes another different mark on the board, calling upon the class 
to give the sound, when ne points to the mark, thus showing that these 
sounds may be associated with any visible marks or characters. He con- 
tinues to invent new marks, always, as he advances, recurring to the pre- 
vious ones, that they may not be forgotten, till some five or six have been 
given. Having thus shown the application and use of a letter, as an arbi- 
trary invention to represent a sound, he can easily exhibit to the class the 
nature and use of an alphabet, the difference between a letter or a mere 
mark and its power. And when the letter is called ess, he can easily show 
the difference between the name ess, the letter or mark s, and the poicer of 
9, which must be given by the voice. 

A letter is a character , used to represent an elementary 
sound. 

The English alphabet contains, twenty-six letters : A, a ; 
B,b; C,c; D, d; E, e ; F, f ; S,g; H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; K, 
k ; L, 1 ; M, m ; N, n ; O, o ; P, p ; Q, q ; R, r ; S, s ; 1\ 
t ; U, u ; V, v ; W, w ; X, x ; Y, y ; Z, z. 

The letters of the alphabet are of two kinds — capitals and 
small letters. 

The various styles of letters are the Roman, the Italic, 

©liT (Sttgiblj, and SPczfU. 

Rem. — Letters of the same style differ in size, giving rise to the foi 
to jving distinctions : — 

Great Primer, Long -Primer, 

English, SS5* 

Pica, Minion, 

Small Pica. £,?j ,areil 



ORTHOGRAPHY LETTERS. 5 

When several letters, or combinations of letters, represent 
the same sound, they arc called equivalents ; as, name, g-ay, 
th-ey. Thus a may be equivalent to ai, ay, ei, ey, ao, ua, 
as in vain, pay, rein, prey, gaol, guage. 

When a letter represents several different sounds, it is said 
to be variable ; as, a in name, far, fat, hall, care, what, liar. 

When a letter has no sound, it is said to be silent. 

Rem. — It will be seen that there are more elementary sounds than let- 
ters. Hence some letters must represent more than one sound each. 

CLASSES OF LETTERS. 

Letters are divided into two classes — voivets and conso- 
nants. 

Those letters which represent vocals are called voicels. 
They are a, e, i, o, ?/, and sometimes w and y. 

Rem. — TFand Fare consonants when they precede a vowel in the same 
syllable ; as, ivine, twine, yes, yet. In all othftr situations they are vowels. 

Those letters which represent subvocals and aspirates are 

called consonants. 

The consonants are b, d, g, I, m, n, r, v, z (subvocal,) and f, h, k, c, q, p, 
t, s, (aspirates ; ) x is a subvocal when it is equivalent to gs, an aspirate 
when it is equivalent to ks. *, 

EXERCISE. 

Tell which letters are vowels, and, which are co7isonants, in the following 
words : — 

Name, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, live, old, sad, young, wine, 
said, yet, win, new, gay, day. 

Tell ivhich of the following letters represent vocals, which subvocals, and 
which aspirates : — 

a, f, g, m, c, k, d, p, o, w, s, h, y, t, r, v, x, 1, e, j. 

Analyze the following icords by giving, in order, the elementary sounds, 
(not the names of the letters ;) tell hoio many sounds and how many letters 
each has ; also what letters are silent : — 

Mete, laugh, bought, fought, believe, phthisic, balm, rough, piece, beau- 
ty, thought, blight. 

Model. M — e — t = mete: — three sounds and four letters. The 
final e is silent. 

Give the equivalent vocals in the following tvoi'ds, tell what letters repre- 
sent them, and write them on your slates, thus : a = ai, ei, ey, ay, ao, ua, ue. 

The equivalent of a in pale, sail, veil, say, gaol, gauge, boqw?t ; of a 
in ask, laugh, aunt, there, praz/er, heir ; of a in hall, late, broad, f°r ap- 

1* 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

plawd, bought, awe ; of e in be, tree, key, flea, brief, conceive, fatigue ; of 
e in end, says, heefer, many, bwry, head, feoff, again ; of i in e'ron, eye, die, 
by, buy, aisle, height, g2/ide; of i in ink, sieve, hymn, been, gz^ilt, busy, 
women ; of o in go, door, owe, goat, roe, flow?, dowgh, sew, beau ; of o in 
dot, what, not, yacht; of u in nrasic, fleio, hue, \iew, adiew, beauty, 
deuce, sluice, you, through; of u in ipull, wool, wolf, wowld ; of u in 
gan, ton, touch, her, six, myrrh, does ; of on in plowgh, now; of oi in 
toil, joy. 

Give the equivalent consonant sounds of the following words, in the same 
nanner : — 

The equivalents of 5 in sine, s7iall, chaise, ocean, nuptial, session, par- 
Jal, gracious ; of z in zone, was, Xerxes, suffice ; of s in seat, cent ; of J in 
joy, gem, soldier ; of v in rote, of, cipher ; of z in azure, measure, rou^e ; 
of w in wet, one, qwilt ; of y in young, minion. 

Point out the subvocals in the following words, and give the correlatives of 
svrc.h as have them, thus : b p ; n ; d — t : * — 

Bat, bind, nib, tube, dog, bad, soda, day, gone, game, joy, just, gill, 
George, vane, vine, then, those, long, let, fall, man, can, mend, mist, sing, 
ring, cling, doing, ran, river, star, wave, wine, wept, one, once, zone, zebra, 
has, his, sacrifice, azure, leisure, rogue, yes, you, filial. 

Point out the aspirates in the following, and give the corresponding sub- 
vocah to such as have them : * — 

Fame, far, if, staff, laugh, t>migh, phrase, kind, hid, quay, lock, hand, 
hide, hill, heart, put, pink, lip, sin, same, sun, city, mice, tell, time, tone, 
net, pit, faced, forced, thief, thought, through, short, shave, shell, shun, 
sure, ocean, official, church, chin, chest, such, what, when, why, where. 

Give the various sounds of the several vowels in the following words : — 
Hate, pate, ball, call, care, fare, hat, mat, far, mar, jar, liar, rival, mete, 
replete, men, pen, hen, there, where, her, herd, crier, fuel, pine, mine, vine, 
twine, pin, sin, din, tin, machine, marine, fir, virtue, bird, note; vote, tore, 
lore, cot, odd, sod, sorrow, more, prove, for, sort, nor, son, done, because, 
honey, tune, cure, tub, but, hut, pull, bush, push, fur, burr, sulphur, rule, 
busy, siren, type, style, crystal, physic, myrrh, myrtle, lately, crazy, 
martyr. Thus, hate — a, pate — a, ball -*- a. 

Give the various sounds of the following consonants in Italics :— 
Face, pace, cap, cup, suffice, yill, go, rouge, was, sister, says, measure, 
wa*r, e^ist. 

COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 

When two or more letters unite, to represent a union of 
elementary sounds, they form a combination of letters ; as 
ou, oi, bl, on, no, not, breath* breadth, thrusts. 

Note 1. — Sometimes a combination of elementary sounds is represented 
by a single letter ; as, i = d e, (a in far, and e in me ;) u in union = yu ; o 
in one = wu. 

Note 2. — Sometimes a combination of letters represents a single ele- 
mentary sound ; as, th in this ; ii, ci, si, ce, in martial, mission, officio ''• 

* Let this be done by actually giving the sound, not by looking at the list of co? 
relatives. 



ORTHOGRAPHY COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 7 

ocean, oo, ce, act, gg, zz, bb,ff, 11, tt, in door, feet, Isaac, egg, buzz, ebb, off, 
call, butt. 

I. Two or more vowels may unite ; as, ou in sound, uoy 
in buoy. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable 
as, ou in sound, ol ir voice. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
soanded ; as, ou in thou. 

An improper diphthong is one in which one of the vowels 
is silent ; as, the a in heat. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable 
as, eau in beauty. 

A proper triphthong is one in which the three vowels are 
sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong is one in which one or two of 
the vowels are silent ; as, ea in beauty, ie in adieu. 

II. Two or more consonants may unite ; as, bl-e-nd, thr-ee. 
Rule 1. Two similar consonant sounds, that is, two aspi- 
rates or two subvocals, may unite ; as, apt, adze, hats. 

Rule 2. When a subvocal is followed by an aspirate, 
the latter usually takes the sound of its correlative ; as, 
bag, bags,* pad, par/s,* = bagz, padz. 

Rule 3. When an aspirate is followed by a subvocal 
the latter usually takes the sound of its correlative ; as 
placed = placVZ t = pl-act, scraped ~ scrap'd f = script. 

Note. — To this rule there are exceptions; as, fierce, first, sent, no 
fierce, firzt, send. 

Rule 4. While two similar sounds may unite, two identi- 
cal sounds cannot, even though letters to represent them 
may be employed ; thus : egg, butt, r ebb, whiff = eg, but, 
*>, whif, not eg-gi but-t, &c. 

* By analyzing the plurals of bag and pad, it will be seen that, though we add the 
letter s, which should represent an aspirate, we do not add an aspirate sound, but the 
subvocal sound z, and that because it is preceded by the snbvocals g and d. Marls 
the difference in the following plurals, where 5 is preceded oy an aspirate: caps, hats 
locks. 

t Though d should represent a subvocal, it takes the sound of its correlative, he 
cause it is made to unite with an aspirate. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

III. Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel sound ; 
as, an, no, did, call. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the vowel combinations in the following words ; tell whether the 
diphthongs are proper or improper : — 

Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, people, view, adieu, 
beauty, though, chief, fail, Csesar, how, sew, gaol, mail, deal. 

Point out the consonant combinations in the following ', and tell what let- 
ters are identical, and what are changed into their correlatives : — 

Birds, blend, apt, capped, clapped, buzz, mats, heads, beads, brought, 
off, skiff, pass, insist, first, faced, round, word, gird, gold, sold, bulb, verb, 
wcrm, last, craft, compact, acts. 

SYLLABLES. 

ORAL EXERCISES. 

The teacher utters the word bat, thus, b — a — t, and says, How many 
sounds did you hear ? Ans. Three. Now, let the class utter the same. 
How many distinct efforts did you make ? A?is. Three. Now, utter them 
all at once, thus, bat. How- many efforts or impulses now? Ans. One. 
When letters unite so as to be uttered at one impulse, like bat, they form 
a syllable. How many impulses in bat-ter? How many in pe-cu-liarf 
Which syllable receives the strongest impulse in con-trol, in-firm, dear-ly, 
o-pen f 

A syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered with 

one impulse of the voice'; as, mat, mat-ter, ma-te-rUal. 

The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. 

Note. — By vowel here is meant a voirel sound, whether represented by 
a single letter, a diphthong, or a triphthong. 

A syllable may consist, — 

(1.) Of a vowel ; as, a-cre, ei-ther. 

(2.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants prefixed ; 
as, basis, bri-ev, three, phthisis. 

(3.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants affixed ; as, 
in, elf, inter-ests, earths. 

(4.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants both pre- 
fixed and affixed ; as, n-oo-n, tr*u-th, thr-u-sts. 

Note. — In the preceding exercises the pupil has been occupied with 
elementary sounds and the characters which represent them. In this, he 
is taugb* the modes of combining these into syllables. It is often ne- 
cessary t« separate a syllable into its elements. 

Th« process of combining elementary parts is called 



ORTHOGRAPHY WORDS. V 

synthesis, and that of separating a combination into its ele- 
ments is called analysis. 

Note. — In analyzing a syllable, let the learner tell, (1.) the essential 
part, that is, the vowel or diphthong; (2.) the consonant or consonants 
which are prefixed to it ; (3.) the consonant or consonants which are 
affixed to it. 

MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES. 

An ... is a syllable consisting of two elements: — 

A . . . . is the essential element, — it is a vowel. (Give its sound.) 

n .... is a consonant, and represents a subvocal; it is affixed to a. 
(Give its sound.) 

Break . is a syllable consisting of three parts : — 

ea . . . . is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why ?), improper (why ?) ; 
e is silent, — a only is sounded. (Give its sound.) 

Br. ... is a union of two consonants, both representing subvocals, b and 
r, (Rule 1,) which are prefixed to ea. (Give their sounds separate- 
ly, then together.) 

& is a consonant representing an aspirate, and is affixed to ea. (Give 

its sound.) 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following syllables, and describe each element : — 
Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day, wax, bat, view, sound, aid, 
meat, suit, rude, the, think, sit, leave, three, bursts, threats. 

Form syllables by prefixing one consonant to a, ay, ey, ou, ieu, y ; two 
or more consonants to e, oo, oe, i, ou, oi, ee, ea, ay, i, ey ; by affixing one, 
two, or three consonants to any jive of the above vowels or diphthongs. 
Form ten syllables in ivhich one, tw<), or more consonants shall be prefixed 
and affixed. 

WORDS AS THE REPRESENTATIVES OF SOUNDS. 

Note. — "Written words are used to represent both sounds and ideas. As 
the representatives of sounds, they are classified according to the number 
of syllables they contain. 

A word may consist of one syllable alone, or of two or 
more syllables united. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, boy* 
pen, tree. 

A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable ; as, 
wa-ture, faith-ful. 

A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable ; as, 
uat-u-ral, faUh-fithness. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A word of four or more syllables is caLed a polysyllable ; 
as, un-nat-u-ral, un-faith-fnl-ness. 

Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particulai 
syllable, to distinguish it from others. 

Every word of more than one syllable has one of its 
syllables accented. 

The accented syllable may be either the first, last, or a 
middle syllable ; as, du'ty, be-long' , pre-paying. 

Some words have a primary and secondary accent ; as, in"defat'igable, 
in'-'comprehen 's ib le. 

Note. — In separating a word into its syllables, we should divide it as it 
is pronounced. Thus some pronounce pat'ri-ot, others pa'tri-ot, and the t 
must be joined to the first or second syllable accordingly. The learner 
should tell how many syllables a word contains, calling it a monosyllable, 
dissyllable, &c. ; then point out the accented syllable, and analyze each ac- 
cording to the preceding models. In writing", a syllable should never be 
divided at the end of a line. A word of more than one syllable may be 
divided, one part being placed at the end of one line, and the other at the 
beginning of the next. 

EXERCISE.* 

Analyze and describe the following words : — 

Beat, said, tree ; friendship, social, himself, stately ; complaining, inter* 
pret, indolence ; incessantly, ^condemnation, interdicting, domesticate ; 
consanguinity, confederation, impenetrable ; mispronunciation, incompre- 
hensible, indefatigable ; impenetrability ; incomprehensibility. 

Correct the accent in the following words : — 

Local', indolence, memorable, ig'nobie, frequently, lament'able, actu'al, 
indisputable, immutahle, retro'spect, completion, lateral. Change the ac- 
cent in the following icords to the second syllable, and give their meaning : 
An/gust, con'jure, des'ert, en 'trance, min'ute, pres'ent, proj'ect, in 'valid. 

Write the following words upon your slate, and divide them into syllables^ 
marking the accented syllable : — 

Conscience, detecting, inability, indubitable, commotion, laborious, re- 
late, detestation, infesting, exemplary. 

Model. Con'science. 



DERIVATIONS. — RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Rem. — So far as the derivation of words refers to their application, and 
classification into parts of speech, the subject properly belongs to the de- 
partment of Etymology. So far as it refers to changes of letters in spell- 
ing, it belongs to Orthography. For the sake of convenience, the fol- 
lowing definitions and rules are here inserted. 



* Let the teacher first give an oral exercise in which he shall exhibit the accent by 
\is own voice. Then require the pupil to repeat the same. 



ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING I 1 

A wora in no way derived from another is a radical or 
primitive word ; as, form, harm. 

A word formed by joining to a primitive some letter or 
syllable, to modify its meaning, is a derivative word ; as, re- 
form, harm-Zess. 

A word formed by uniting two or more entire words is a 

compound word ; as, inkstand, schoolhouse. 

The parts of those compounds which have been long in use are generally 
united closely; as, nevertheless, sunrise; in others, the hyphen (-) is used 
to separate the parts; as, labor-saving. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell which of the following words are primitive, which derivative, 
and which compound : — 

Bright, fair, told, meek, some, playful, joyless, income, bookstore, play- 
mate, cloud-capped, ink, housetop, fearful, reform, dismember, dreary. 

Form derivative words from the following primitives, and draio a line 
wider the added syllable or letter : Hope, fear, barm, love, care, know, peer, 
ape, weed, cloud, form, grade, place, joy, truth, poet, fade, weep, laugh. 

Model. Hopetess. 

Form compound words, by joining some appropriate xoord to each of the 
following : Air, chest, alms, bank, birth, bill, fire, eye, weed, toll, wood, 
foot, work, play, land, busy, tree, breeze. 

Model. Aix-pump. 

SPELLING. 
Spelling is the art of representing words by their proper 
letters. 

PRIMITIVE WORDS. 

The spelling of primitive words should be learned mainly from the dic- 
tionary or spelling book. The following are the most obvious rules : — 

Rule 1. Monosyllables ending in f I, or s, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, stuff, hell, miss. 
If of as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, are excep- 
tions. 

Rule II. Words ending in any other consonant than/, 
/, or 5, do not double the final letter ; as, put, rap, on, trim, 
Wag, star. Add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, 
nuzz, fuzz, are exceptions. 

DERIVATIVE WORDS. 
In the formation of derivative words, the final letters of the primitive, 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as well as those of the prefix, often undergo a change. Hence the follow 
ing rules should be studied with care. 

PREFIXES. 

That part of a derivative word which is placed before the 

radical is called a prefix ; as, re-turn, pre-pay. 

In applying prefixes to radicals, certain changes often take place, to 
render the sound more agreeable. These changes are made according to 
the following rules : — 

Rule I. Dropping the final Letter. — The final let- 
ter of a prefix is sometimes omitted ; as, co-existent, for cow- 
existent ; ant-arctiCy for anti-arctic. 

Rule II. Changing the final Letter. — The final 
letter of a prefix is often changed to one which will har- 
monize, in sound, with the initial letter of the radical ; as, 
t;/i-pious, for i?z-pious. 

The final letter of the prefix generally becomes the same as the first let- 
ter of the radical ; as, i7-limitable. 

The principal prefixes which undergo this change are ad, (ac, af, ag, al, 
an, ap, ar, as, at;) con, (cog, com, col, cor;) en, (em;) e, (ex, ec, ef;) dis, 
(dif, di;) ob, (of, oc, op;) sub, (sue, suf, sug, sup, sur;) syn, (sym, syl.) 

EXERCISE ON RULES I. II. 

Write derivatives by prefixing anti to arctic ; con to temporary, laborer, 
extensive, location, mend, mix, mingle, nomen, relative; ad to scribe, 
credit, firm, fluent, legation, rest, point, ply, tempt; in to religious, legal, 
legible, liberal, noble, perfect, penitent, potent, prove; en to body, broil ; 
ob to position, press, cur, fend ; snb to cession, fix, fumigation, fusion, gest, 
press, render ; sy?i to pathetic, logistic ; ex to centric, flux ; dis to fuse, late. 

Correct the following examples by Rule II: Inply, subrender, immediate, 
synpathetic, adlegation, adfect, adcredit, obpose, obportvnity, exfect, dis- 
fer, inluminate, conlect, conmend, enploy, subgest. 

Note. — The most common prefixes are contained in the following list. 
They are chiefly prepositions of Saxon, Latin, or Greek origin. The root* 
to which they are prefixed are not always used as distinct words in the 
English language. The meaning of such radicals may generally be deter 
mined by applying different prefixes. Thus, in im-ipel, e.r-pel, dis-pel, com- 
pel, jwo-pel, one would readily see, by comparison, that pel means io drive. 
These exercises on the prefixes may be omitted the first time of going 
through the Grammar. 

PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. 



Prefix. 


Signification. 


Example. 


A. 
Be. 

For. 


on or in. 

near, on, for, over, 
against, not /from. 


Aboard, ashore. 
.Beside, bestir. 
Forbid., forsake. 



ORTHOGRAPHY PREFIXES. 



13 



Prefix. 


SirrnificatioTi. 


Example 


Fore. 


before. 


Foresee, foretell. 


Wis, 


wrong, error. 


Mistake, misspell. 


Over* 


above, beyond. 


Overdo, overload. 


Out. 


beyond, more. 


Outrun, outdo. 


Un. 


not, negation. 


Unwise, unkind. 


i 1 ntler. 


beneath, inferior. 


Understand, undergo. 


Up. 


above, up, subversion. 


Uplift, ujiset. 


With. 


against, from. 


Withstand, withdraw. 




PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. 


A, ab, abs. 


from, away. 


^45stract, avert. 


At!.* 


to, at, towards. 


Adjoin, approach, (move). 


Ante. 


before. 


Antecedent (going). 


Bene. 


good, well. 


.Benevolent, beneficent (doing. 


His or Bi. 


tioice, two. 


insect (cut), bined (feet). 


Circum. 


around, about. 


Cz'mmnavigate (sail). 


Cis. 


on this side. 


Cisalpine. 


i. on.* 


together, with. 


Collect, eo??fme. 


Contra. 


against. 


Contradict ( speak ) . 


De. 


from, down. 


Dethrone, detract (draw). 


Dis.* 


asunder. 


Distract, direr t (turn). 


E (ex).* 


out of, from. 


EJjeet (drive), e.rpel (cast). 


Extra. 


beyond. 


f?.r£r<7,ordinar y . 


In.* 


into, in ; not.f 


inform, mclude ; inactive. 


Inter. 


between. 


Interpose (place). 


Intro. 


in, within. 


Introduce (lead). 


Non. 


not. 


i\ r onconformist. 


Ob.* 


against. 


Obstruct (build). 


Per. 


through, by^ 


Perfect (made). 


Post. 


after. 


Postpone (place). 


Pre. 


before. 


Precede (go). 


Pro. 


for, forth, forwards. 


Pronoun, progress (go). 


Preter. 


past, beyond. 


Preternatural. 


Re. 


back, again. 


Pecall. 


Retro. 


backwards. 


Pe^rograde (move). 


Se. 


apart, separation. 


Secede (go). 


Sine. 


without. 


Sinecure (care). 


Sub.* 


under. 


Subscribe (write). 


Super. 


over, beyond. 


Superscribe (write). 


Trans. 


over, change. 


Transplant. 


Uni. 


one. 


Uniform. 




GREEK PREFIXES. 


A or an. 


without. 


Anonymous (name). 


Amphi. 


both, double. 


Amphibious (living). 


Ana. 


through, up. 


Anatomy (cut). 


Anti. 


against. 


./4nfo'christian. 


A po or Aph. 


from. 


Apogee (earth). 


Dia. 


through. 


Diameter (measure). 


Epi. 


upon. 


Epitanh. (tomb). 


Hyper. 


over, above. 


Hypercritical, 


Hypo. 


under. 


Hyjjocrite. 



* Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms. 

f Before a verb, in signifies into, in, and sometimes against ,' before an adjective, it 
feaa a negative meaning. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Prefix. 


Signification. 


Example. 


Meta or Meth. 
Para. 
Peri. 
Syn.* 


change, beyond, 
from, against, 
around, 
with. 


.Metamorphose (form). 
Paradox (opinion). 
Perimeter (measure). 
Sympathy (feeling). 



Note. — Many of the roots to which the prefixes are added are not 
distinct words in the English language. In the following exercises, as 
in the above examples, such roots will be defined in a parenthesis. The 
pupil should analyze derivative words according to the following . — 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Impenitent ... is a derivative word. (Why ? ) 

Penitent .... is the radical part, and signifies repenting. 

1m . . . ... is the prefix (in, Rule II.,) and signifies not. 

Hence, impenitent, not repenting. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the folloxcing derivative words according to the model : — 
Aboard, aground, accredit, accustom, aggrieve, antepast (taste), for- 
give, bestir, foreknow, misplace, overtake, abstract (draw), outrun, un- 
common, adjoin, understand, uphold, withdraw, benevolent (wishing), 
circumscribe (write or mark), cisalpine, bivalve, complete (fill), dispel 
(drive), imprint, interdict (speak), oppose (place), pervade (pass), pre- 
meditate, preoccupy, post mortem (death), progress (go), refer (carry), 
reanimate, subterraneous, (earth), support (bear), superstructure, trans- 
pose (place), acephalous (head), antipathy (feeling), apostatize (standing), 
aphseresis (taking), diagonal (angle), epitaph (tomb), paraphrase (speak- 
ing), periphrasis. 

Study the list of prefixes, and then add to the following roots all that may 
be \ised appropriately. Define each word. 

Form spire f (to breathe), rect (to make straight), part, sign, sume (to 
take), scribe, (to write), tract (to draw), duce (to lead), sist (to stana), 
lude (to play), cede (to go, to yield), elude (to shut or close), port (to 
carry), act, claim (to call or speak), natural, sure, prove, join, struct (to 
build), course, cur (to run), vention (the act of coming or going), graph 
(marked or written), fuse, press, pel (to urge or drive), volve (to roll or 
turn), gress (to step, pass), fi^, flux, fer or late (to bear, carry), mise or 
mil (to send), tain (to hold), diet (to speak), pose (to place), vers or vert 
(to turn). 

MODEL. 

Conform, to form together, i. e., to assimilate, to yield to custom. 

Peform, to form again, i. e., to renew. 

Inform., to form in [the mind], i. e., to tell. 

Deform, to form from [the proper shape], i. e.,to disfigure. 

Perform, to form through, i. e., thoroughly, to complete. 

Transform, to form over, i. e., to change the form. 

Note. — By exercises like the above, multiplied at the discretion of the 
teacher, the pupil may soon perceive the force of all the prefixes. It is a 

* Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms. 

f To many of the radicals two prefixes are added ? each having its peculiar force 
us. rs-c<?n-srrurt, re-a^-mit. The pupil should explain each, 



ORTHOGRAPHY SUFFIXES. 15 

good exercise to take the dictionary and require the pupil to explain all 
the derivatives from any given root 

SUFFIXES. 
That part of a derivative word which is placed after the 
radical is called a suffix ; as, faith -ful^ end-less. 

Note. — In applying suffixes, the final letter or letters of the radical 
are often changed. Such changes are made according to the following 
rules : — 

Rule I. Doubling the final Letter. — On reviving a 
suffix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of a mono- 
syllable, or of any word accented on the last syllable, is 
doubled, if the radical ends with a single consonant, preceded 
by a single vowel ; otherwise it remains single ; as, dig-ing, 
dig-gmg ; defer-ing, defer-ring. Not so repair-ing, defend- 
ing, dhTer-ing. 

Many words ending in I; as, travel, libel, cancel, cavil, chisel, counsel, 
duel, equal, gravel, model, pencil, revel, rival, trammel, tunnel, &c, double 
the I on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, though not accented 
on the last syllable. To these add worship, bias, kidnap; vrovshxp~pi?ig t 
bias-sing, kidnap-jsm^. 

Rule. II. Dropping the final Letter. — On receiving 
a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the radi- 
cal is dropped in most words ending in e silent ; as, love-ing, 
loving ; also in some words ending in y and i ; as, felicity - 
ate, felicitate ; deiism, deism. 

Contrary to the general rule, the final e is retained, when preceded by c 
or g ; as, peace-a&Ze, peaceable ; change-«5Ze, changeable; to preserve the 
soft sound of those letters. So also we have singeing and swingeing, to 
distinguish them from singing, swinging. 

The final letters le, when followed by ly, are dropped ; as, noble-fy, no- 
bly. So also t or te before ce or cy ; as, vagrant-cy, vagrancy ; prelate-cy, 
prelacy. 

Words ending in II usually drop one I on taking an additional syllable 
beginning with a consonant ; as, skili-ful, skilful. 

Rule III. Changing the final Letter. — The final y 

of a radical word is generally changed to i, if preceded by 

a consonant ; otherwise it usually remains unchanged : as, 

happy-es£, happiest ; duty-es, duties ; day-s, days. 

The f, in w >rds ending in f or fe, is generally changed to v, when the 
suffix begins with a vowel ; as, life, lives. 
To prevent doubling t, the y is not changed when the suffix begins with 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i ; as, marry-????, marrying. For the same reason, the e being dropped by 
Rule xl., in die, lie, tee, vie, the i is changed to y , as, dying, lying, tying, 
vying. 

EXERCISES ON THE RULES. 

Add ing, ed, or ek, to beg, sit, dig, dim, bed, dog, let, bet, prefer, trans- 
fer, forget, dispel, propel, befit, control, travel, level, counsel ; love, compile, 
receive, leave, grieve, confine, define. Add able to peace, change, sale ; — 
ly to able, disagreeable, conformable, idle, noble ; — ful to skill, will ; — 
es, ED, or ing, to duty, lily, glory, story, history, beauty, beautify, amplify, 
rectify. 

Correct trie following , and explain your corrections : — 

Beding, beting, wifes, debared, abhorent, alkalioid, gloryous, citys, fan- 
cyful, tarriing, carriing, dutyful, bountyful, handsomeest, bloting. fame- 
ous, agreeabley incompatibley^ 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES 
The following list contains the principal suffixes. They signify, — 

I. The person who, the female who : Ant, ar, ard, ary, eer, er, ee, 
ent, ist, ite, ian, ive, or, ner, ster, yer, zen ; ess, ress, ix, ine. 

Examples. African, one taho lives in Africa. Servant, one who serves. 
Beggar, one who begs. Adversary, one who opposes. So, dotard, chariot- 
eer, laborer, mortgagee, president, economist, favorite, arithmetician, 
operatire, actor, partner, teamster, lawyer, citizen; poetess, instructress, 
testatrix, heroine. 

II. The thing which, the act of, the quality of or state of: Acy, 
age, al, ade, ancy, ance, ency, ence, ety, hood, ion, ism, ice, ment, mony, 
ness, ry, ship, ude (tude), th, ty, ure, dom, ric. 

Examples. Privacy, the state of being private. Justice, that which is 
just. Meekness, the quality of being meek. So, bondar/e, refusal, cannon- 
ade, expectancy, repentance, penitence, emergency, variety, childAood, erec- 
tion, despotism, commandment, acrimony, goodness, rivalry, scholarship, 
quiet'ade, tru^A, novelty ,- presst^re, Christendom, bishopric. 

III. The property pertaining to, belonging to, or abounding in : Ac, 
al, an (ian, ean,) ar, ary, ate, ic (tic or atic), ile, ine, ory, ose (ious, eous, 
uous), ful, ey, y. 

Examples. Elegiac, pertaining to an elegy. Mountainot^s, abounding 
in mountains So, autumnal, antediluvian, emblematic, lunatic, consular, 
discretionary, juveni/e. adamantine, transitory, verbose, wondroas, affec- 
tionate, hooeful, sunny. 

IV. To cause, to make : Ate (iate, uate), en, fy, ish, ize, ise. 
Examples. Alienate, to make an alien. So, justify, stablisn, softer- 

civili^g, criticise. 

V. Diminution: Cle, cule, kin, let, ling, ock. 

Examples. Corpuse/e, a little body or particle. So, animalcaZe, lamb* 
kin, eaglet, duckling, hillock. 

VI. (Miscellaneous:) Oid, like; as, spheroid — ive, tending to; as, 
delusive — ward, towards; as, east?card — less, without; as, sleep/ess — « 
ics, science of; as, mathematics — ish, somewhat ; as, bluisn — like, re 
%emblinq ; as, warlike — ly, in manner ; as,wise/y — able (ihle) , capable of; 
&#, credible. 



ORTHOGRAPHY SUFFIXES. I t 

Note. — The following terminations are properly grammatical inflection*. 
nsed to denote the accidents of the noun, verb, adjective, or adverb ; — 

B or es, . mure than one, (plural ;) as, birds,* churches. 

ed, . . . past time, or the passive state ; as, loved, (did love, or was loved.) 

ino, . . . continuing to do ; as, loving. 

er, est, . more, most ; as, warmer, warmest 

Note. — The general significations of the various suffixes are given in 
the above list. The particular variations of these meanings, to suit given 
cases, will readily suggest themselves. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Quietude It is a derivative word. (Why ? ) 

Quiet is the radical part, and signifies rest. 

Tide is the suffix, and signifies state of. 

Hence quiet-ude, state of rest. 

Note. — By combining this with the preceding model, the pupil can ana- 
lyze ail words having both a prefix and a suffix. All compounds may be 
analyzed according to the following 

MODEL. 

Sea-breeze . . is a compound word, (why ?) formed from 

sea, which means the ocean, and 

breeze, .... which means a gentle wind. 

Hence Sea-breeze, a gentle wind from the ocean. 

EXERCISE, j 

Study the list of suffixes and prefixes, and then analyze the following 
derivative words : — 

Incomplete, famous, peerage, chilcjhood, peaceable, animalcule, pupilage^ 
globule, hopeful, kingdom, friendship, expectation, indecisive, incompati- 
ble, incomprehensibility, righteous, signature, prepossession, dissimilarity 5. 
discovery, recoverable, reorganize, transparency, debasement, promotion* 
derangement, reinstate, predisposition, illumination, ignominiously, allo= 
gation, confederation, impenetrability, disqualification. 

Analyze the following compound words : — 

Seahorse, timepiece, cloudcapped, fireplace, inkstand, tree-top, wood 
house, schoolroom, mousetrap, whaleship, sunrise, drawbridge, newspaper 
copy-book, breastplate, eyesight, airpump, cornstalk, woodpile. 

Add as many prefixes and suffixes as you can to the following radicals^ 
and count the number of words you form from each : — 

Form, gress (go), press, grade, range, merge, number, face, brace, value, 
measure, like, state, cloud, fair, stable, equal, print, trust, burden, mix, 
mount, line, social, move, base, animate, judge, test, use, lay, figure, firm, 
Vene (come), join, struct (build), charge, cede, serve, tend. 

* When s or es are added to the present tense of the verb, they denote the singu- 
lar number. 

2* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MODEL. 

Form — forms, former, formed, forming, .formation, forma/, formally, 
formality, formalist, formalism, formative, reform, reforms, reformed, re* 
forming, reformation, reformatory, reformafa're, reformer, inform, in- 
forms, in former, -informed, informing, informal, informally, informality, 
informant, misinform, misinformed, perform., performs, performer, jperform- 
e'd, performing, performance, performable, deform, deforms, deformed, de- 
forming, deformity, transform, tra?isforms, transforming, transformed, trans- 
formation, conform, conforms, conforming, conformed, coiiformer, conform- 
ance, conformably, conformation, conformist, conformity, nonconformist, 
nonconformity, unform, unformed, uniform, uniforms, uniformly, uni- 
formity . 65 words. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

(1.) The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital ; 
as, "Jesus wept. 9 * 

(2.) Titles of honor and respect, and ever} 7 proper name, and every ad- 
jective derived from a proper name, should begin with a capital ; as, Hi* 
Highness, Boston, Bostonian. 

(3.) Every appellation of the Deity should begin with a capital; as 
God, Jehovah, the Eternal. 

(4.) The first word of every line in poetry should begin with a capital. 

(5.) The words / and O should always be capitals. 

(8.) Any important word may begin with a capital. 

(7.) The principal words in the titles of books should begin with capi- 
tals ; as, Pope's " Essay on Man." 

(8.) The first word of a direct quotation, when the quotation forms a 
complete sentence by itself, should begin with a capital. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and 
various modifications of words. 

A word is the sign of an idea, and is either spoken or 
written. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

According to their meaning and use, all words are divided 
into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. 

All words are divided, according to the number of syllables they contain, 
into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. 

Words are divided, according to their formation, into primitive, deriva 
five, and compound. 

A primitive word is always a simple word. 



ETYMOLOGY PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 

Words which vary their forms in construction are called declvuxble 
Those which do not vary them are indeclinable. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

In English, there are eight parts of speech — the Noun, the 
Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposi- 
lion, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

\ noun is the name of an object ; as, fruit, Henry, Boston. 

The noun (from the Latin nomen, a name) embraces a large number 
of words. All words which are the names of persons, animals, places, or 
things, material or immaterial, are called nouns. 

An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the mean- 
ing of a noun or pronoun ; as, good, faithful, this, some. 

The adjective (from the Latin adjectus, added to, i. e., to a noun) em- 
braces a large class of words, which are added to nouns to express their 
qualities, or define them ; as, " worthy citizens ; " " this book." All words 
which are united to nouns answering such questions as What f What 
kindt How many? are adjectives. 

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; as, 

I, he, you, who. 

This part of speech (derived from the Latin pro and nomen, for a name) 
embraces but a small number of different words ; yet any noun may be 
represented by a pronoun. It will be seen that these three parts of speech 
are intimately connected: the first is X\& name of an object; the second 
expresses the properties of the first ; the third may take the place of the 
first. 

A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ; 

as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 

Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. It is derived from the Latin 
verbum, the icord, i. e., the important word; it embraces a large class of 
words. The different uses of the verb, as well as those of the other parts 
of speech, will be explained hereafter. 

An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an 

adjective, or another adverb ; as, quickly, frst, far. 

The adverb (from the Latin ad and verbum, added to a verb) embraces 
all those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, to 
denote time, place, and manner. 

A preposition is a word used to show the relation between 
a noun or pronoun and some other word ; as, from, upon, on, 
with. 

This part of speech includes a small list of words, which are used to de- 
note the relations of place, time, cause, manner, property, quality, ike. It 
is called a preposition (from the Latin pra% before, and positio, a planing, 
placed before) from the circumstance of its being placed before the object 
mth which it is alwavs associated- 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect either words, 

phrases, or propositions ; as, and, but, or. 

The conjunction includes but a small class of words, which are used to 
join the parts of a sentence ; it is derived from the Latin conjvuictas, joined. 

The interjection is used to express some emotion of the 
mind ; as, O / alas ! 

The term interjection (from the Latin interjectus, thrown between) is 
applied to a few words that do not enter into the structure of a sentence, 
out may be thrown in at pleasure, to express our feelings. 



NOUNS. 

A noun is the name of an object ; a , house, tree, Boston 
goodness. 

Rem. 1. — The word object, as here used, should be carefully distinguished 
from the same term employed in Syntax, to denote the complement of the 
transitive verb. It here denotes every species of existence, material or 
immaterial, which may be considered independently or alone ; and is op- 
posed to the term attribute, which always represents something dependent 
upon, belonging to, or inherent in an object.* Thus apple is the name of 
the object, — the substance which embraces every possible property of the 
apple, — while sweet is the name of one of its attributes, and when used 
concretely, exists only in connection with the object, not independently 
and alone. These fundamental distinctions gave rise, among the earlier 
grammarians, to the terms noun substantive, or name of the substance, 
(object,) for the former, and noun adjective, or name of the attribute, 
(something added to the substance,) for the latter. Subsequently, the 
former term was abbreviated into substantive, afterwards noun, and the lat- 
ter into adjective. 

Rem. 2. — It will be perceived that the idea of substance or independent 
existence is the basis of the distinction between the noun and the adjec- 
tive ; yet it must be remembered that nouns or adjectives are mere words, 
so called, because the one denotes a substance, or an object, and the other 
an attribute. 

Rem. 3. — It will be seen, moreover, that an attribute, when regarded 
as an independent existence, that is, when abstracted from the object to 
which it belongs, becomes an object of itself. Its name, whether changed 
or not, ought to be a noun. To show the change, however, the word denot- 
ing the attribute generally undergoes some change ; as, good, good-^ess, 
bright, bright-?z€55. 

Rem. 4. — Whenever a word, syllable, letter, or symbol of any kind i& 
spoken of as an object, it must be regarded as a noun ; as, " We is a per- 
sonal pronoun." " Un is a prefix." " A is a vowel." " + is the sign of ad- 
dition." " , is a comma." 

RTem. 5. — So, again, when a phrase, or a clause of a sentence, is used to 
denote an object, it becomes a noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." 
" That you have wronged me doth appear in this." 

* Note to the Teacher.— -It is all-important that the learner acquire the habit 
of distinguishing, at the outset, between an object and an attribute. This can be best 
done by lessons on objects and their attributes. (See Introduction.) Tt will make 
the distinction a matter of conception, rathe* than of mere memory. 






ETYMOLOGY — EXKRCISES. 21 

R BM. 6. — The noun is often called a substantive. AH phrases or clauses. 
used as nouns, are called substantive plirases or clauses. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Note. — For an oral exercise, see Introduction, pages xxix and xxx. 
Nouns are divided into two classes — proper and common, 
A proper noun is the name of an individual object ; as, 

James, Erie. 

A common noun is a name which applies to each ir.divid- 

jal of a class of objects ; as, man, boy, house. 

Rem. 1. — As a proper noun denotes simply an individual, whenever it 
5 made to represent an individual as belonging to a class, it becomes a 
common noun; as, " He is the Cicero of his age," i. e., a distinguished 
orator. 

Rem. 2. — Common nouns, on the contrary, may become proper, when, 
by personification, or special use, the object named is regarded as an indi- 
vidual, not belonging to a class ; as, " O Justice, thou art fled to brutish 
beasts, and men have lost their reason." " The Common.''' " The Park" 

Under the head of common nouns are commonly reckoned collective, 
abstract, and verbal nouns. 

A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes more than one 
object ; as, army, family, flock. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality or an action, considered apart 
from the object to which it belongs ; as, goodness, virtue, wisdom, move- 
men* 

A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun ; as, " He was convicted 
of stealing." 

The infinitive is a kind of verbal noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." 

To nouns belong person, number, gender, and case. 



EXERCISES. 

Tell which of the following words designate objects, and which prop- 
erties ; then select the nouns : — 

Horse, old, good, peach, vine, heavy, dell, hard, strong, hill, star, empty, 
ocean, hilly, wright, William, European, engine, saline, road, top, stile, 
oog, rose, upright, smith, smart, weed, smithy, smoke, balloon, oyster, sea, 
chariot, wild, hungry, thirst, delay, duty. 

Select the nouns from the following sentence ; — 
As soon as the sun was seen coming over the hills, the farmer aroused 
the laborers from slumber, who, with their scythes on their shoulders, 
and oitchforks in their hands, marched gayly to the field to begin thela- 
bors of the day. 

Tell which of the following nouns are common, and which are 
proper : — 
Posterity, virtue. Rome, tea, Nero, Cicero, Germany, Paris, pomp, aim- 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

shine, meadow, Pekin, gulf, Medici, astronomy, Darius, father, calico, 
Londcn, dungeon, district, Sicily. 

Tell which of the following common nouns are abstract, which art 
collective, which are verbal : — 

Army, tasting, goodness, heat, harness, rising, sailing, wisdom, flock, 
rronder, teaching, energy, frankness, freedom, school, destiny, household, 

multitude, teething, shutting, dulness, company. 

Change the following names of properties into abstract nouns : — 
Good, cheerful, diligent, rapid, powerful, dark, strong, heavy, lovely, 
brilliant, beautiful, flaming, brave, swift, lame, solid, soft, thick, easy, 
strange. Thus, good, good ness. 

Write the names of fifteen objects in this room ; also write the names 
of such objects at home as you can recall. 

Fill the blanks in the following examples with nouns of your own se 
lection : — 

is short. are strong. have fallen. is a 

quadruped. were destroyed. will decay. will rise 

at six o'clock. is the king of beasts. was the father of his 

country. was a tyrant. were overthrown in the Red Sea. 

'mourned for Absalom. shine at night. 



PERSON. 

Note. — Review the oral exercise in the Introduction, page xxxiii. 

Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which shows 

its relation to the speaker. v 

A noun or pronoun must represent either the speaker, the person spoken 
to, or the person or thing spoken of 

There are three persons — the first , second, and third. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; as, " 7, John, saw." 

The second person denotes the person spoken to ; as 
"• Children, obey your parents." 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of; 
as, " Thomas did not come." " The harvest is abundant." 

Rem - . 1. — Nouns in the first or second person are never used as the sub- 
ject or object of a verb, but may be put in apposition with either, for the 
purpose of explanation ; as, " I, Paul, beseech you." 

Rem. 2. — The names of inanimate objects are in the second person, 
when the objects to which they apply are spoken to. Objects thus ad- 
dressed are personified, and are treatea as though they were actual hear- 
ers ; as, " And I have Wed thee, Ocean.'" 

EXERCISE. 

Tell the person of the ?wuns and pronouns in the following sentenr.es : — 
Nero was a tyrant. Children, obey your parents. Philip, thou art a 
man. Delays are dangerous. We cannot tamper with temptation. Tie 



ETYMOLOGY NUMBER OF NOUNS. 23 

ferryman took us safely across the river. Keep thy heart with all dili- 
gence. We should love our country. King Philip was the last of the 
wampanoags. " Let my country be thine," said his preserver. Babylon, 
how art thou fallen ! The lady loves her will. 

Fill the blanks in the following expressions ; tell the person of the noun or 
pronoun inserted : — 

was executed for murder. art the man. The lady lost 

purse and all contents. are willing to remain. 

— — hast strangely ended. delight in surf bathing. The father 

called sons and daughters around . The duke was 

esteemed for uprightness, and the duchess beloved for kind- 
ness. Art a spirit of earth or air ? wast wrong to urge 

me so. 

NUMBER OF NOUNS* 

Number is that property of a noun which distinguishes one 
object from more than one. 

Nouns have two numbers — the singular and the plural. 

The singular number denotes but one object ; as, horse, 
river, nation. 

The plural denotes more than one object ; as, horses, riv- 
ers, nations. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
I. The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 
(1.) By adding 5, when the singular ends with a sound 

that can unite or coalesce * with s ; as, book, books ; tree, 

trees. 

(2.) By adding es, when the singular ends with a sound 

that cannot unite or coalesce with s ; as box, boxes ; church 

churches. 

Rem. 1. — When es is added, s has the sound of z ; as, fox, foxes ; when 
8 only is added, it has the sound of z when it unites or coalesces with a 
vowel ; as, folio, folios ; flea, fleas. It follows the rule (see Rule 1, page 7) 
for the combination of consonants, when it follows a consonant ; that is, 
it is s aspirate when it unites with an aspirate ; as, hat, hats ; cap, caps ; 
surf, surfs; clock, clocks ; it is s subvocal (or z) when it follows a subvo- 
cal ; as,' lad, lads ; log, logs; ball, balls ; farm,, farms ; fan, fans ; war 
wars. 

* Let the teacher give an oral exercise before commencing " Number of Nouns. 
Its object should be to show that number has reference to one, or more than one. 
First, take one bonk, or any other object, and ask, " How many do I hold up? " Am. 
One book. Spell the word or write it on the slate. How many now? Ans. Two 
books. What letter is added ? Why is it added ? How many now ? Ans. Three 
books. Are any more letters added? Ans. No more. How would you write the 
word if there were twenty books ? Ans. The same as w hen there were two or thres 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 2. — T\e,s or es adds a syllable when it does not coalesce with 
the final syllable of the singular ; as, church, church-es ; race, rac-es ; cage, 
cag-es. The s or es does not add a syllable when it does coalesce with the 
final syllable ; d.s, work, works ; echo, echoes. 

II. The plural is irregularly formed in various ways. 

(1.) When the final s, contrary to the rule, (see Rem. 1, above,) is 
sub\ocal, after the aspirate sounds /, fe, the f must be changed (see 
Rule 1, page 7) into its correlative v ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives ; sheaf 
sheaves ; thief thieves. When s is aspirate, as in the plurals of dwarf ', brief, 
scarf, reef, chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief, gidf surf turf serf proofs 
hoof, roof, safe, fife, strife, the /'is not changed. Staff, when meaning a 
stick, has staves for its plural ; when meaning a set of officers, it has 
staffs. The plural of wharf, in the United States, is icharves ; in Eng- 
land, wharfs. 

Note. — The s added to th aspirate is also subvocal, (except in truth, youth, and, 
U may be, a few others,) and would cause a similar change in the orthography ot the 
plural, were not the correlative also represented by th ,• as, oath, oaths ; bath, baths. 

(2.) Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add es, not- 
withstanding s alone would coalesce with o ; as, cargo, cargoes. Yet canto, 
grotto, quarto, junto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, portico, tyro, halo, add only s. 
J3ut by some writers es is added. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, 
follow the general rule ; as, folio, folios ; cameo, cameos. 

(3.) Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into ies ; 
as, glory, glories; mercy, mercies. Formerly, these words, in the sin- 
gular, ended in ie , as, glorie, mercie ; their plurals were then formed regu- 
larly. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form the plural regularly ; 
as, day, days ; key, keys. 

(4.) The following plurals are very irregular; as, man, wen; ivo- 
man, women ; brother, brethren, or brothers ; ox, oxen ; goose, geese ; 
child, children ; foot, feet ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice (meaning a 
cube used in gaming), dies (meaning a stamp) ; pea, peas, or pease; tooth, 
teeth; penny , pennies {corns,), pence (a sum or value). 

(5.) Names of substance, and mo^t abstract nouns, commonly have 
no plural form ; as, gold, cider, fax, milk, tar, goodness, darkness. 
When different kinds of the substance are referred to, the plural is added ; 
as, waters, wines, teas. 

(6.) In compound words, if the word denoting the principal idea 
is placed first, it is changed to form the plural ; as, court-martial, courts- 
martial ; cousin-qerman, coushis-german ; hanger-on, hangers-on ; but if 
the principal word is placed last, the final word is changed ; as, hand- 
ful, hand-fuls ; man-servant, tco man-servant, and knight-templar change 
both ; as, men-servants, women-servants, knights-templars. 

(7.) Letters, marks, figures, and signs are pluralized by adding \s ; as, 
the s's ; the i's ; the * 's ; the 9's ; the -\-'s. 

(8.) On the use of the plural of proper names with a title prefixed, 
the opinions of writers are divided. The following rules have the au- 
thority of good usage : — 

(a.) A proper name with the title of Mrs., or the ordinal numbers, tiro, 
three, four, &c, prefixed, when used in the plural, is itself changed, and not 
the title ; as, " the Mrs. Livingstons ; " " the two Dr. Warrens." 

(b.) In addressing two or more persons of the same family, or of differ- 
ent names, the title alone is changed; as, ''the Misses Livingston;" 
" Messrs. Walker." But either of the following forms may be used ; " the 
Miss Rands," or "the Misses Rand;" "the Mr. Walkers," or "the 
Messrs. Walkers." 



ETYMOLOGY EXERCISE. 25 

(9.) Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plu- 
rals; as, antithesis, antitheses; automaton, automata; axis, axes; ban- 
dit, banditti; beau, beaux; cherub, cherubim; criterion, criteria, datum, 
data; desideratum, desiderata ; encomium, enconaa ; erratum, errata ; fo- 
cus, foci ; formula, for mulce ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; ma dame, mesdames 
magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, 
nebuhe ; phenomenon, plicnomena ; radius y radii ; seraph, seraphim ; stimu- 
lus, stimuli ; stratum, strata. 



REMARKS ON THE NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

Nouxs without the Plural. Rem. 1. — Proper names, when ap- 
plied to individuals, strictly speaking, do not admit of a plural form. But 
when several of the same name or family are spoken of together, the 
noun takes the plural, according to the general rule ; as, " the Ccesars ; " 
" the Stuarts ; " " the Harpers." 

Nouns without the Singular. Rem. 2. — The following nouns 
have no singular : embers, oats, scissors, vespers, literati, antipodes, ashes, 
clothes, billiards, ides, intestines, vitals, bellotos, drawers, nippers, tongs, 
shears, &c. Lungs, bowels, and some others have a singular denoting a 
part of the whole ; as, lung, bowel. 

Rem. 3. — The following words are plural in respect to their original 
form, but singular or plural in respect to their meaning : alms, amends, 
neios, riches, pains, (meaning effort,) odds, wages, mokisses, series, suds, 
corps, measles, tidings, mumps, rickets, nuptials ; as also the names of 
some of the sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, statics, mechanics f 
mnemonics. 

Note. — News is now regarded as singular ; so also measles and molasses, although 
they have the plural form. 

Nouns either Singi t lar or Plural.' Rem. 4. — Some nouns ar<? 
alike in both numbers ; as. deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, sal- 
mon, brace, dozen, yoke, gross. 



EXERCISE. 

NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

Note. — Let the teacher give short sentences in the singular, as, waiei 
■flows, and require the learner to change the nouns to the plural. 

Tell which of the folloioing nouns are singular, and which are plural :- 
Daughter, day, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, nails, ink 

stand, horn, hearts, hoof, books, bundle, home, canes, umbrellas, markets 

flower, leaf. 

Write the plural of the following nouns, and give the rule for the teiirni 
nation : -^ 

Work, example, lady, oak, horse, hope, stratagem, ferry, leaf, storm, 
bird, bond, thief, dreg, sex, trick, band, bottle, day, filly, half, watch, ircn 
vinegar. 

Tell the singular of the following : — 

Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, hypothe- 
ses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, errata, cheru- 
oim, sheep, formulae, swine, sol >s, flies, knives, riches, mottoes, octavos 
courts-martial, inkstands. 

8 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Fill the following blanks ; tlie first five with common nouns in the singular 
nuwher : — 

■is a noble animal. is a virtue. cannot be seen 



must be avoided. had reached the meridian. The next Jive 

with proper nouns in the singular : descended the Alps. was 

not at home. crossed the Delaware. was the Emperor of 

Rome. was a valiant soldier. The next fire with abstract, verbal^ 

or collective nouns ; on the water is a pleasant amusement. 

was scattered by the wolves. is the mother of vice. was 

collected around the hearth-stone from friends is painful. The 

next Jive with nouns which do not admit of a plural : is sour. 

is found in Pennsylvania. goes before a fall. is situated on 

the Danube. is transparent. The next five with nouns which do not 

admit of a singular: must be ground. take to themselves 

wings. were j oyful. were made of brass. were voted 

by tne assembly. 

Correct the follow ing plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the cor 
rection : — 

Heros, negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thiefs, calfs, stratums, phenome- 
nons, cherubims, mans, turkies, Ays, court-martials, father-in-laws, son-in- 
iaws, cupsfull, seraphims. 

Tell the nouns and pronouns in the following sentence : tell the person and 
number of each : — 

" Thy testimonies have I taken as an heritage forever, for they are the 
rejoicing of my heart." 

GENDER. 

Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex. 

There are three genders — the masculine, the feminine, and 
the neuter. 

Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender ; 
as, man, king, hero. 

Nouns which denote females are of the feminine gender ; 
as, ivoman, queen, mother. 

Nouns which denote neither males nor females are of the 
neuter gender ; as, tree, rock, paper. 

Rem. 1. — Some nouns may denote either males or females ; as, parent, 
child, cousin. These are sometimes said to be of the common gender ; but 
as the gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connec- 
tion, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction. 

Rem. 2. — By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine 
or feminine gender is applied to inanimate objects ; thus we say of a ship, 
" She sails well;" of the sun, " He rises in the east." The use of this 
figure imparts peculiar beaut? and animation to language. " Her flag 
streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their flight." " The 
tneek-eyed mom appears, mother of dews." 

Rem. 3. — In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even oi 



ETYMOLOGY G-ENDER. 27 

mtants, the distinction of sex is not observed; as, " And it became a ser- 
pent, and Moses fled from before it." " The child was lying in its cradle." 

Rem. 4. — Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of unity, or take 
the plural form, are neuter ; as, " The army, on its approach, raised a shout 
of defiance." But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural 
form, they take the gender of the individuals which compose the eoliee 
tion ; as, " The jury could not agree upon their verdict." 

There are three methods of distinguishing the sexes :— - 

(1.) By using the different words : — 

Examples. Bachelor, maid; bean, belle; boar, sow; boy, girl; broth- 
er , sister ; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck ; earl, countess; 
father, mother ; gander, goose ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen; 
lad, lass ; lord, lady ; male, female ; man, woman ; nephew, niece ; ram, 
ewe ; son, daughter ; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch; 
monk, nun; hart, roe; master, mistress; Mister, Mistress, (Mr., Mrs. ;) 
papa, mamma; sir, madam; sloven, slut; steer, heifer; youth, damsel; 
twain, nymph. 

Rem. — Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines; as, 
baker, brewer, porter, carrier ; while some feminine nouns have no cor. 
responding masculine ; as, laundress, seamstress. 

(2.) By a difference of termination : — 

Examples. Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; administrator, administra 
trix ; adulterer, adultress ; ambassador, ambassadress ; author, authoress ; 
baron, baroness ; bridegroom, bride ; benefactor, benefactress ; count, count- 
ess; dauphin, dauphiness ; deacon, deaconess ; director, directress; duke, 
duchess ; emperor, empress ; executor, executrix ; governor, governess ; heir, 
heiress ; hero, heroine ; hunter, huntress ; host, hostess ; instructor, instruct- 
ress ; Jew, Jewess ; landgrave, landgravine ; lion, lioness ; marquis, mar- 
chioness ; monitor, monitress ; patron, patroness; poet, poetess ; priest, 
priestess ; prince, princess ; prophet, prophetess ; shepherd, shepherdess ; tes- 
tator, testatrix ; tiger, tigress ; tutor, tutoress ; widower, widow ; god, 
goddess ; giant, giantess ; negro, nepress ; songster, songstress ; sorcerer, 
sorceress. 

(3.) By prefixes and suffixes. 

Examples. Land/oro 7 , landlady ; gentleman, genxleiooman ; peacock, 
pea/to; Ae-goat, she-goat ; ma?i-servant, ma^-servant ; male-child, fe- 
male-child ; <?oc/c-sparrow, Aen-sparrow ; grandfather, grandmother ; Eng- 
lishman, English woman; merman, mermaid; schoolmaster, schoolmistress. 



EXERCISE. 

Tell which of the following nouns are masculine t which feminine, and 
which neuter : — 

Picture, walnut, duchess, philosopher, Spaniard, door, letter, cap, sailor, 
queen, priest, curtain, lioness, nun, captain, bridge, widow, hind, wizard, 
deacon, hospital, fort, banner, doe, brother, countess. 

Give the feminine gender to the following nouns : — 

Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew, male, lord, widower, 
hart, husband, beau, uncle, author, host, shepherd, poet, gander, sultan, 
Hunter v master, drake, king, patron, bridegroom, stag, prince, peer, nephew. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Give the masculine gender of the following : — 

Empress, songstress, ewe, mother, sister, marchioness, maid, actress- 
woman, she-goat, electress, witch, doe. 

Fill the blanks in the following examples ; the first five with comment 
nouns m the masculine gender : — 

is patient. loves his master. reigns king of beasts?. 

exposes his wares for sale. should venerate the eld. The 

next five with proper or common nouns in the feminine gender : was 

Queen of England. entertained her guests with grace. was 

a distinguished poetess. was the nightingale of Sweden. — 

loves her offspring. The next fire with collective nouns, and tell the gender : 

met at the house of a friend. brought in a verdict. 

were appointed by the chair. must obey its leaders. listened 

with delight. 

CASE. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Will you sag or declare something of a pen ? a dog f a horse ? a bee ? a 
tree f Thus, " The pen is poor." 

Now, suppose, instead of saying something, you had done something to 
each of these; how would you speak of it ? Ans. " I broke my pen."" Is 
pen in the same relation or case as before ? Ans. It is not. It was then 
the subject ; it is now the object. (See Introduction, Proposition enlarged.) 
Now, when we use a noun in the relation of subject, it is in the nomina- 
tive case ; then in what case are these nouns ? George writes. The clouds 
are black. The smoke ascends. The wind blows. When we use a noun in 
the relation of object after a verb or a preposition, it is in the objective case. 
In what case are these nouns ? I saw a man. He broke the window. They 
walk in the garden. She sits on the sofa. 

Suppose Henry owned a sled ; how would you tell whose sled it was ? 
Ans. Henry's sled. Henry is now in the relation of a possessor, and the 
word Henry'' s is said to be in the possessive case. Tell in what case the 
following words in Italics are : John came yesterday. I saw a hen. Hum- 
phrey's clock. The cat caught a mouse. Herbert's dog worried his broth- 
er's cat. 

Will you mention the name of some object in this room ? A?is. Chair 
Now say something of the chair. " The chair stands on the floor." 



CASE. 

Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other 
words, 

There are three cases — the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective. 

The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun, and 
.s commonly used as the subject of a proposition ; as, 
i George speaks." " The door was shut." 

Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case may be 
ased, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition ; 2d, it may be used to identify 
he subject or attribute ; 3d, it may be hid ependent of any other word. 



ETYMOLOGY — DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 2& 

The possessive denotes the relation of property or posses- 
sion ; as, " David? s harp." 

The possessive singular of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding an apostrophe ( ? ) and the letter s to the nominative ; 
as, man's, David? s. 

When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ; 
as, boys', ladies\ But the (') and 5 are added when it ends 
in any other letter ; as, ?nen's, women's, brethren's. 

Rem. 1. — When the singular ends in s, or a letter or combination of 
letters having the sound of s, and the addition of a syllable would be 
harsh, the (') only is added ; as, goodness' sake, conscience' sake, Moses' 
seat, Cockatrice' den. 

Rem. 2. — Some difference of opinion prevails among writers respecting 
the form of the possessive in other cases where the singular ends in s, 
some adding the (') only, and some the (') and s. Thus we have Adams' 
express, or, Adams's express ; Otis' letters, or Otis's letters. The weight 
of authority seems to be in favor of the additional s, whenever the laws of 
euphony will admit ; especially if a syllable is added in pronouncing the 
word ; as, Bates's Sermons. 

When a noun follows a transitive verb or a preposition, it 
is in the objective case ; as, u Thomas opened his knife?' 
u The bird sat on the tree?' 

Rem. 1. — The nominative case answers the question Whof oiJVJiai? as, 
11 Who writes ? " " John writes." " What ularms him ? " " The storm 
alarms him." The 2 )0ssessive answers the question Whose ? as, " Whose 
book have you ? " "I have my brother's book." The objective case an- 
swers the question Whom? or What? as, " Whom do you see ? " "I see the 
captain." " On what does he stand } " " He stands upon the deck." 

Rem. 2. — The possessive case may be known by its form. But the 
forms of the nominative and the objective are alike ; hence they must be 
determined by their relation to other words. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The declension of a noun is its variation to denote num- 
ber and case. 





EXAMPLES. 




1. Boy. 


Nom. 
Poss. 

Obj. 


Sing. 
Boy, 
Boy's, 
Boy; 



Plur. 
Boys, 
Boys\ 
Boys. 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Norn. 
Poss. 

Obj. 



Nom. 
Poss 
Obj. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



2. Fly. 

Sing: 
Fly, 
Fly's, 
Fly; 

3. John. 

Sing. 
John, 
John's, 
John ; 

Goodxess. 

Sing. 

Goodness, 

Goodness', 

Goodness ; 



Plur. 
Flies, 
Flies', 
Flies. 



Plur. 
Wanting. 



Plur 

Wanting. 



PARSING. 
Parsing consists, — 
(1.) In telling the part of speech. 
(2.) In telling' its properties or accidents. 
(3.) In pointing out its relation to other words, and giv- 
ing the rule for its construction.* 

In parsing a noun, say, — * 

(1.) It is a noun, and tell why. 

(2.) It is common or proper, and tell why. 

(3.) It is of the 1st, 2d, or 3d person, and tell why. 

(4. ) It is of the singular or plural number, and tell why. 

(5.) It is of the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and tell why. 

(6.) It is of the nominative, possessive, or objective case, and tell why. 

(7.) The rule* for construction. 

EXERCISE. 

The following nouns are in the nominative case. Parse them thus : — 

" George writes." 

George is a noun, it is the name of an object ; proper, it is the name of 
an individual object ; of the third person, it denotes the person 
spoken of; singular number, it denotes but one ; masculine gen- 
der, it denotes a male ; nominative case, it is used as the subject 
of the proposition " George writes." R,ule I. " A noun or pro- 



* The pupil who has been thoroughly drilled on the Introductory Course may 
oe able to introduce this third element of parsing, if the teacher choose. The Rules 
of Syntax will, of course, be anticipated, if applied here. The teacher can omit or 
u.se the riles, as he may think best. 



ETYMOLOGY CASE. 31 

noun used as the subject of a proposition must be in the nomi- 
native case." 

Trees grow. Rain falls. The ice melts. The serpent crawls. Susan 
sings. The coal burns. The stars shine. Wisdom is profitable. Dogs 
Sark. The cars arrive. Smoke ascends. Columbus sailed. Mary studies. 

The following nouns are in the nominative case. Those in Itaacs are the 
predicate-nominative. Parse the latter thus : — 

" Henry was a scholar." 
Scholar . is a noun, (why?) common, (why?) third person, (why?) singitr 
far number, (why?) masculine gender, (why?) nominative case ; 
(why ?) it is used as the attribute of the proposition, " Henry is 
a scholar." Rule II. " A noun or pronoun used as the attribute 
of a proposition must be in the nominative case." 

Peter was an apostle. Gold is a metal. Demosthenes was an orator. 
Horses are animals. Borneo is an island. Algebra is a science. Air is a 
fluid. Water is a liquid. The earth is a globe. The stars are suns. The 
moon is a satellite. 

The following nouns are in the nominative. Those in Italics are in the 
nominative by apposition. Parse them thus : — 

" The Emperor Nero was a tyrant." 
Nero . . . is a noun, (why ?) proper, (why?) third person, (why?) singidar 
number, (why ?) masculine gender, (why ?) nominative case ; it is 
used to identify or explain Emperror. Rule VI. (Repeat it.) 

The psalmist David was a king. Paul the apostle was a martyr. The 
disciple John was beloved. Washington the general became Washington 
the statesman. Milton the poet was blind. Henry the scholar was 
crowned king. 

The folloioing nouns in Italics are in the nominative independent. Parse 
them thus : — 

" James, bring me a book." " John, come." 

James . . is a proper noun,* second person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case ; it denotes the person addressed. 
Rule X. 

The folloioing nouns in Italics are in the possessive case, as may be seen 
by the sign ('s). Parse them thus : — 

" The pupil's task is easy." 
PupiVs . is a no?m, (why?) common, (why?) third person, (why ?) singu- 
lar number, (why?) masculine ox feminine gender; it denotes 
either a male or a female ; possessive case ; it denotes the relation 
of property or possession, and is used to limit task. Rule VII. 
" A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun or pronoun by 
denoting possession, must be in the possessive case." 

The boy's hand was injured. The king's command was issued. The 
rook's nest was destroyed. The bird's beak was broken. The s&pe?it's 
fang is poisonous. The elephant's tusk is white. Rufus's garden is 
watered. Mary's work is agreeable. 

* It will be well at times to omit the definitions, and shorten the formulas for 
parsing. 



S4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following nowis in Italics are in the objective :ase. Parse them 
thus : — 

" We visited Washington, the capital, in the District of Columbia." 

Washington is a proper noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen 
der, and objective case ; it is used as the object of visited, ac- 
cording to Rule VIII. " A noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the 
objective case." 

Capital . . . is a noun, &c, in the objective case, and is used to identify or 
explain Washington, which is in the objective case Rule 
VI. (Repeat it.) 

District ... is a common noun, &c, in the objective case, and is used as 
the object of the preposition in, according to Rule XI V. 
" A noun or pronoun used as the object of a preposition, must 
be in the objective case." 

Columbia . . is a proper noun, &c, object of of. Rule XIV. 

Put the following nouns in Italics into the possessive case, and let each 
expression be written on your slates, thus : — 

" The carpenter axe. The carpentw's axe." 

Abraham son. David harp. Moses law. Adams Arithmetic. Web- 
ster Dictionary. Peter coat. The teacher book lies upon the pupil desk. 
The coachman dog barked at the herdsman sheep. The lion roar aroused 
the shepherd dog. The farmer corn was destroyed by his neighbor cow. 

Parse each possessive noun on your slates, and give the rule for forming 
the possessive case. 

Write the following nouns in the possessive plural, and place some appro- 
priate noun after them, th us : — 

" The tailors' shears." " The men's apartment." 

Tailor, seaman, captain, doctor, lawyer, judge, gardener, shoemaker, 
blacksmith, hunter, laborer, fireman, engineer, conductor, superintendent, 
director, president. 

Tell the case of each noun in the following examples : — 
John's hat lies on Peter's table. The pastor's visit consoled the moth- 
er's heart. The love of truth should be cultivated in childhood. 

Correct the following examples and parse the nouns from your slate : — 
The huntsman horn alarmed the shepherd dog. The pilot wife saw hex 

husband boat. The jailer child approached the prisoner cell. We sat on 

the boatman oar. 

Select ten objects capable of action, and assert some appropriate action of 
wch. Then individualize (Introduction) or limit both the object and the 
action, observing the rules of criticism. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

let me have my Slate. If you wil corect this sentence, i wil thank 
you ; — every sentence should begin with a capital. John seperates a silab- 
ie at the end of a line, if you rite this exercise without refering to the rule 
for doubbling the final leter, you may misspel too words, o, i have made a 
mistake in the use of capitals. liad'nt sarah ought to begin all proper 
names with a capital, george reads wrights syfers spels and studys gog- 
raphy, but he does not put his eomirtys where he'd ought to. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES, 33 



ADJECTIVES. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

When I say " birds," I may mean all the birds in the world. How can 
[ speak so as to Until the number of birds to ten ? Ans. By placing ten 
before the word birds; thus, ten birds. We limit the number by adding 
something to the word birds. What shall we call the word thus added to a 
noun ? Ans. An adjective, (added to. J Which represents the greater 
number of horses, /torses — or white horses f Ans. Horses. What word has 
thus diminished the number of horses ? Ans. White. Does white show a 
quality as well as limit the number ? Ans. It does. Which represents 
the greater number, books — ox five books? Ans. Books. Does Jive show a 
quality of the books, as, good, useful, bad, at the same time that it limits 
the number ? Ans. It does not ; it limits without showing any quality. 
What is the difference, then, between Jive and white t Five limits without 
qualifying, and white limits by qualifying. What kind of adjectives are 
these in Italics f Good scholars, bad -pens, old houses, faithful servants. 
Ans. They are adjectives expressing quality. What Kind of adjectives 
are these ? Ten stoves, the first class, yonder orchard, this hat, every day. 
Ans. They are adjectives which limit, but do not qualify. (See Introduc- 
tion, " Objects Individualized.") Now study carefully the following def- 
initions and mark the distinctions : — 

An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun ; 

as, " a good school ; " " a diligent boy ; " " this table ; " 

" ten men ; " " the box." 

Rem. — All words which have the construction of the adjective are 
here considered under the head of adjectives. The article, like the ad- 
jective, belongs to the noun ; it has the same construction as the adjective, 
and is hence placed among adjectives. 

Every adjective is a dependent or subordinate word, and 

must belong to some noun or pronoun as its principal. 

Rem. 1. — When the noun or pronoun to which the adjective belongs 
has been previously used in the same sentence, or is some indefinite word, 
as, person, some one, or some thing, it may be omitted ; as, " I will give 
you this book, if you will give me that.*' " The kingdom <jf heaven suf- 
fereth violence, and the violent [persons] take it by force." 

Rem. 2. — An adjective belonging to a noun understood, or omitted, 
takes the place of the latter, and is said to be an adjective used as a noun. 
(See model for parsing that and violent, p. 39.) 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are divided into two classes — limbing and 
qualifying. 

A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict tK x mean- 
ing of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities. ; as, 
" the house ; " "jive books ; " " this pen." 

Limiting adjectives are divided into three classes— <v**i- 
des, pronominal adjectives^ and numeral adjectives. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ARTICLES. 

The particular limiting adjectives, the and a, or an are 
called articles. 

The is called the definite^ because it points out some par- 
ticular thing ; as, " the desk ; " " the sun." 

A) or cm, is called an indefinite article, because it does not 
point out any particular thing ; as, " a pen ; " " an orchard.'' 

An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a conso- 
nant sound ; as, " an apple ; " " a pin ; " " an hour ; " " a 



Rem. — Although the article is intimately connected with the limitation 
of nouns, it is to be regarded rather as the sign of limitation than as it- 
self a limiting word. When one says, " The man," the gives notice to the 
hearer that some particular man is regarded in the mind of the speaker. 
He will point out, by limiting or individualizing, who that particular man 
is. A, or an, again, is a sign that the speaker, in regarding a multitude of 
objects of the same kind, thinks of one, but no specific or particular one 
The object may be limited to show what class or description of objects is 
meant, but not to show any particular individual. A, or an, however, may 
be said to limit whenever it prevents a noun from being used in its wides + 
sense ; as, man = the whole human race ; a man = one man, but no par- 
ticular one. The, again, may be said to extend the meaning of a noun in 
the singular, when it is used in such examples as these : " The horse " = 
" all horses." " The dog," &c. 

EXERCISE. * 

Point out the articles in the following examples ; tell which are definite 
and which are indefinite : — 

The hat, a book, a knife, a box, an heir, an ox, a plough, an orchard, an 
Industrious man, an honest man, a good citizen, a hill, a huge round stone, 
the enemy, the union, the ewe. 

Correct the following examples in all respects; write them on your 

slates ; — 

I have got an hat. We have an horse. We saw many an one. We 
went a snowballing. I dun it this mornin'. I saw any quantity of slays. 
I seen him do it. I board an hole with my uncles gimblet.* 

* Suggestion to the Teacher. — It is the design of these examples, interspersed 
among others, to keep alive the spirit of criticism, and to root out by practical exer- 
cises those incorrect expressions which children have imbibed from early associations 
Many of them may be corrected by principles already acqu'.red. Others will antici- 
pate the rules yet to be given. And others, still, can never be reached by the rules of 
grammar ; they must be corrected by the laws of good usage. (See Rem. page 1.) 
What rule of grammar will correct such an expression as "I disremember what he 
eaid?" Cannot every word be parsed? Does grammar correct this? "Iprcpos* 
(purpose) to visit my friends." Every improvement in the expressions of the learner 
is a decided gain, whether it be made by rule, or by observing the custom of good 
speakers or good writers. Correct all faulty expressions oy the rules of grammar, 
if possible, but at all events correct them. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

Those limiting adjectives which may, without the use of 
the article, represent a noun when understood, are called 
pronominal adjectives ; as, " That (book) is his ; this i? 
yours.'" 

The principal pronominal adjectives are, this, that, these, 
those, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, 
some, one, none, any, all, such, much, both, few, fewer, fewest ) 
first, last, little, less, least, many, more, most, own, same, 
several, sundry, enough. 

Rem. 1. — When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are 
generally called projioiins. They may more properly be called limiting 
adjective'*^ (■pronominal adjectives,) used as nouns ; as, " This is my book." 
The articles never represent a noun understood. 

Rem. 2. — Qualifying adjectives may also represent a noun when under- 
stood, but the article must be prefixed ; as, " The good are happy." 

Rem. 3. — All is sometimes a noun ; as, " He robbed me of my house, 
my goods, my home, my all." Both is frequently a conjunction"; as, " I 
both saw and heard him." 

Rem. 4. — Each, every, cither, neither, are used distributively. This and 
that, with their plurals, these and those, are used demonstratively. None, 
any, all, such, whole, some, both, one, other, another, are used indefinitely. 

Rem. 5. — These, those, all, many, both, feio, fewer, fewest, several, 
sundry, usually require a noun in the plural ; as, " These days." " Those 
plants." * 

Rem. 6. — One and other are declined thus : — 





Sing. 


Phu 




Smg. 


Plu. 


Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


One, 

One's, 

One; 


Ones, 
Ones', 
Ones. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Other, 
Other's, 
Other ; 


Others, 
Others' 
Others. 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the pronominal adjectives in tlie following sentences : — 
This rule is preferable to that. These scholars are more studious than 
those. The former plan has yielded to the latter. Each exercise was well 
written. Every accused one was acquitted. The first method is better 
than the last. Many of our hopes are blasted. Few men are of the same 
mind. Much remains to be said upon all these points. Our own wishes 
must often be yielded to those of others. More were present than were 
expected. Little hope was entertained of his recovery. Neither remark 
was just. The same course was pursued by several of the members. 
Much harm arises from imprudence. I am less than the least of all 
saints 

Correct the following in all respects : — 

Those sort of cherries aint good, these exercises is not corect in somt 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

respect, tlie Times is very hard, our dutys must Be performed. Seven 
pupils come in late yesterday None has came. H'aint you seen them 
men ? he said he hadnt none. James thinks thats right, but others 
dozent. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral adjectives are those which express number , as, 
one, two, three, first, second, &c. 

INumeral adjectives are divided into, Cardinal, which 
denote how many ; as, one, two, three, &c. ; Ordinal, which 
show which one of a series ; as, first, second, third, 

EXERCISE. 

Ap2)ly cardinal numbers to the following nouns ; change them to the 
plural, if necessary ; -~ 

Peach, berry, box, cup, match, cork, shoe, glove, pencil, wafer, penny, 
mcuse, goose, woman, court-martial, tooth, brother-in-law, handful, stra- 
tum, index, stamen, cherub, phenomenon. 

Correct the following plurals, and apply to each any numeral greater than 
one or first : — 

Oxes, calfs, sheeps, deers, geeses, 9s, 7s, fs, cherubims, serapnims, 
swines, vallies, loafs, chimnies, journies, studys, commander-in-chiefs, 
heros, soloes, grottoes, ladys. 

Collect all the erroneous exjrressions which you have noticed to-day, and 
correct them. Be careful to avoid them yourself. 



QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 

A qualifying adjective is one which limits the meaning 
of a noun, by denoting some property or quality ; as, " a 
virtuous man ; ,<5 "a running horse. " To this class of ad- 
jectives belong the participles, which have the signification 
of the verb and the construction of the adjective. 

Rem. 1. — When the participle is placed before the noun which it modi- 
fies, it is called a participial adjective ; as, " The rising sun." When it is 
placed after the noun, and is itself limited by other words, it is parsed as 
a participle ; as, " The sun rising in the east." 

Rem. 2. — When a qualifying adjective represents an object understood, 
r'ther definite or indefinite, the article the must be placed before it ; as, 
'• The wise [per&ons ;] the benevolent [ones ;] the beautiful, the good, 
and the true." When the quality is used abstractly, the adjective under- 
goes a change in its termination ; as, Wise, wisdom ; beautiful, beauty. 



F, T V M O L CKf y — A D J EC T I VE S. 3* I 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

When different objects are compared with each other, the 
adjective expressing the quality by means of which they are 
compared undergoes a change, called comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison — the positive, 
comparative, and superlative. 

The positive simply denotes a quality ; as, righteous, 
pleasant. 

The comparative shows that one of two objects possesses 
a quality in a higher degree than the other ; as, " This tree 
is taller than that." 

The superlative shows that one of several objects possesses 
a quality in the highest degree, when compared with all the 
rest ; as, " That pine is the tallest tree in the grove.'" 

FORMATION OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 

The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by 
adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the 
positive ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; bold, bolder, boldest. 

The comparative of most adjectives of more than one 
syllable is formed by prefixing more or less, and the 
superlative by prefixing most or least, to the positive ; as, 
industrious, more industrious, most industrious. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: Good, better, best; 
bad, icorse, worst ; ill, worse, worst ; little, less or lesser, least ; much, more 
most ; many, more, most; far, farther, farthest ; near, nearer, nearest or 
next ; late, later, latest or tast ; old, older, or elder, oldest or eldest. 

Rem. 1. — Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a 
quality in a lower degree than the positive ; as, bluish, approaching in 
color to blue. 

Rem. 2. — The meaning of the positive is also varied by the addition of 
such adverbs as somewhat, rather, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, ex- 
ceedinqly, &c. ; that of the comparative and superlative by such words 
as much, far, vastly, altogether, by far, &c. 

Rem. 3 — Several adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by 
adding most to up, upper, nether, in, inner, hind, hinder, out, (contracted to 
\ti,) outer, further, hither, top, bottom; as, upmost, uppermost, inmost. 

Rem. 4. — Adjectives derived from proper names, numerals, pronomi- 
nal adjectives, and such as refer to position, material and form, are seldom, 
if ever, compared. 

4 



£If#LISH GRAMMAR, 



EXERCISES. 



fell which of the following words are adjectives : — 
Ice, cold, soft, water, this, little, chair, knob, arise, biave, diligent, ink 
stand, lamp, many, former, light, white, match, rough. 

Tell which of the following adjectives are limiting, and which are qualh 
fifing:— 

Strong, twenty, faithful, green, this, first, are, old, former, yellow, every 
such, wonderful, timid, sweet, any, fifth, the, soft, those, pure, ripe, tough, 
other, thirty, odious. 

Tell which of the following adjectives are of the positive, which of the 
comparative, and which of the superlative degree: — 

Braver, young, more, acceptable, eldest, less, useful, worst, better, roost 
honorable, strongest, sadder, more plentiful, least worthy, last, good, 
thrifty, considerate, tallest. 

Compare the following adjectives : — 

Bright, active, handsome, wise, sad, able, just, diligent, beautiful, good, 
excellent, dutiful, little, serene, fruitful, large, obedient, warm, studious, 
affable, dexterous, gloomy, industrious, honorable, hot, ample, hard. 
worthy. 

Apply limiting adjectives to ten common nouns. 

Apply qualifying adjectives to ten common nouns, of the masculine gender, 
and in the plural number. 

Apply qualifying adjectives, in the comparative degree, te ten common 
nouns in the feminine gender. 

Apply qualifying adjectives, in the superlative degree, to ten nouns in Vm 
neuter gender. 

Fill the blanks in the following examples :«■— 

— — — men are respected. Intemperance is vice. Gold is 

of metals. The sun is than the earth. Asia is grand divis- 
ion. The plague is the fatal of diseases. The Pacific is 

than the Atlantic. men sit at their doors. The south wind 

breathes gently forth. events cast their shadows before. . The 

Alps are — , the Andes are , but the Himalaya are — of all. 

■ men never lived. men never fought. 

Study the following models for parsing , and then parse any of the above 
examples : — 
In parsing an adjective, — 
(1 .) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ? 
(2.) Tell what kind of adjective. Why ? 

(3.) Compare it, and give the degree, (if a qualifying adjective.) 
(4.) Tell to what noun it belongs. 
(5.) Give the rule. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

" The faithful man will be rewarded." 

Faithful is an adfoefiw ; it Is used to limit or qualify a nour • qumlifyjinQ. 



ETYMOLOGY — - PKU.NUUNS. 39 

t dd-DUs quality ; it is compared; positive faithful, company 
tive va,re }uiih):d, superlative most faithful; it is in the posi- 
tive de^n.^, and cdongs to man, according to Rule V. (Re- 
peat it.) 

11 Her Loose is larger than mine." 

wfl^'.i ii an adjective ; it is uf^ed to limit or qualify a noun ; qtaiftfying , 
it denotes quality , it is ccmpared ; positive large, comparative 
larger, superlative forfeit; it is in the comparative degree; it 
shows a higher degrce*of Che quality than the positive does, and 
belongs to house, accoidh g h. Rule V. (Repeat it.) 

" She is worthy of ihe highest praise " 

Highest is an adjective ; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; qualifying ; 
it denotes quality ; it is tot^ixir+d • positive high, comparative 
higher, superlative highest ; it L- in the superlative degree ; it 
shows the highest degree of the q-wLty, and belongs to praise, 
according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) 

" The rose is a beautiful flower." 

The ... is an adjective ; (definite article ;) it is\ used to limit or qualify a 
noun ; limiting ; it limits without denoci.ig quality ; it belongs to 
rose, according to Rule V. (Repeal it ) 

" A tree has fallen." 

A. .... is an adjective, (indefinite article;) it is used to limit or qualify 
a noun ; limiting ; it limits without demoting quality ; it belongs 
to tree, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) 

" Three birds were killed." 

Three . . is an adjective ; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; limiting, 
(numeral;) it limits without denoting quality ; it belongs to birds 
according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) 

" Give me this apple, 'and I will give you that," 

That ... is an adjective ; it is used to limit the noun apple, understood jr 
it is used as a noun, in the third person, singular number, and 
objective case, and is the object of the verb give f according to 
Raile VIII. 

" The kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent take it by 
force." 

Violent . is an adjective ; it belongs to persons, understood ; or it is used as 
a noun, of the third person, plural number, nominative case, and 
is the subject of the proposition, the violent take, according to 
Rule I. (Repeat it.) 



PRONOUNS. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

*' David gave David's book to Ellen ; and Ellen gave David's book to 
Ellen's father ; and Ellen's father thanked Ellen that E?l?n had giveD 
David's book to Ellen's father." What word is repe;:*^ \ #*<* t v **? 
<>£ this sentence ? Ans. David's. What word can you T* \r> V \ 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ans. His. Repeat the expression, and substitute his in place of David's. 
Will you give the second part so as to avoid repetition? Ans. And she 
ie< rather. What does she take the place of? Ans. Ellen. 
What does it take the place of? Ans. David's book. What does her take 
the place of ? Ans. Ellen's. How can you better express the third part ? 
Anb. By saying, And he thanked her, that she had given it to him, 
Tell what each of these little words stands for. Tell what words are 
displaced, and what part of speech they are. Now, since each new word 
stands for a noun, we need some word which shall mean for noun. What 
word can you give ? Ans. Pronoun. Then he, his, him, she, her, and it 
are proiunins. If a boy by the name of Charles should say, meaning him- 
self, " Charles is studying arithmetic," what change must he make to show 
that he means himself ? Ans. He must use I instead of his own name ■ 
/ am studying arithmetic. What part of speech is If What person is it ? 
Why ? If you were to say, Charles is studying arithmetic, what change 
must you make to show that you spoke these words to Charles ? Ans. 
You are studying arithmetic. Then, what part of speech is you f What 
person ? Why ? Of what person is he f she f it t he f him f his t 

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; 
as, " The farmer ploughs his field ; he reaps his wheat, and 
gathers it into his barn." 

Rem. 1. — The pronoun is used instead of the noun,— 

(1.) When the object referred to is both known, and has been previously 
mentioned; as, " David came to his house in Jerusalem." " Here is the 
pencil for which I was looking." 

(2.) When the object referred to is known, but not (necessarily) pre- 
viously mentioned ; as, " /have the memorial which you gave me." 

(3.) When the object referred to is neither known nor has been 'pre- 
viously mentioned ; as, " Who comes yonder ? " 

Rem. 2. — The personal pronouns are used to represent some relation 
to the speaker. Those of the first and second persons can scarcely be said 
to represent the name of the speaker, pr of the hearer at all, since they 
*nay be used when the name is unknown. They are employed to show a 
"elation rather than a name. Those of the third person represent as well 
the name of some person or thing as its relation to the speaker. They 
enable us to avoid repeating it ; they also show its relation in regard to 
sex, (gender,) and its syntactic relation, (case.) 

Rem. 3. — The noun for which a pronoun stands is called the antece- 
ient ; as, " The world, in which they are placed, opens with all its wonders 
upon their eyes." The antecedent may be a phrase or an entire proposi- 
tion ; as, " Te believe the report, which is the thing you desire, would be 
offensive to one of the noblest of men." " The ser cant opened the window, 
which was strictly forbidden." 

PvEM. 4. — The antecedent of the personal pronouns of the first and sec- 
ond persons is always supposed to be present, and consequently seldom 
named ; that of the third person is usually expressed. Sometimes, how- 
ever, a personal or an interrogative pronoun is employed without an ante- 
cedent, and so limited by a relative and its clause, as to give to the whole 
the effect of a single name; as, " He who sways the minds of men by his 
eloquence" i. e., the orator, " exerts the highest human power." " Who, 
that marks the fire still sparkling in each eye, but would deem their bosoms 
burned anew ? " Sometimes the antecedent pronoun, in such cases, is omit- 
ted, or included in the relative ; as, " Who would be free, themselves must 
strike the blow " " Who steals my purse steals trash." 



BTYKOLOe? — PERSONAL fUOSQUM. 41 

Hem. 5. — The pronoun stands not merely for a noun, but for a I 
restricted by modifying words ; as, " We saw the little deformed buy whe 
watched at the gate, and pitied him" i.e., the little drf armed boy who 
watched at the gate. 

Rem. 6. — The antecedent, as the term indicates, is something going 
before; but as an interrogative pronoun inquires for an object as yet un- 
known, the name of it cannot be used before the pronoun, but must follow 
it. It might then more properly be called the subsequent ; as, " What havo 
y.m brought ? " " The cloak." 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes — personal t -reld 
live, and interrogative, 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

A personal pronoun is used both to represent a noun, and 
to show whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 

J (plural we) is of the first person; thou (plural ye oi 
you) is of the second person ; he, she, and it (plural they) 
are of the third person, masculine, feminine, and neuter, 
respectively. 

The compound personal pronouns are, first person, my 
self, (plural ourselves;) second person, thyself, (plural your 
selves;) third person, (masculine) himself, (feminine) he** 
self, (neuter) itself, (plural themselves.) 

To pronouns, like the nouns for which they stand, beloi^ 
Person, Number, Gender, and Case, 

Rem. 1. — The personal pronouns of the first and second person repre- 
sent the speaker or the hearer. The gender is supposed to be known, 
and is not indicated by the form of the pronoun, while that of the thira 
person is represented by one of the forms, he, she, or it. 

Rem. 2. — It is often used in a vague sense, as the subject of verb* 
descriptive of the weather ; as, " It rains." " It thunders." It is used as 
an expletive, (1.) as the object of a verb; as, " Come and trip it as you 
go ; " (2.) to introduce a sentence whose subject is placed after the predicate. 
i i It is pleasant to see the stm." "It has been ascertained, thai water h 
composed of oxygen and hydrogen." It is used as subject to represent a 
noun or pronoun as attribute, of any number, gender, or person ; as, " It 
is /." " It is they." " It is James." " It is she." 

Rem. 3. — The compound personal pronouns are seldom, if ever, used 
as the subject of a proposition, though they may be used in apposition 
with it; as, " He himself knows not whereof he affirms. When used as 
the object of a transitive- verb, they are called reflexive, because the aot 

4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAI. 

of the agent falls back upon himself; as, " The boy struck himself." Each 
other and one another in the same relation are sometimes called reciprocal 
pronouns ; as, " The boys struck each other." 

Rem. 4. — Formerly thou was used in addressing a single individual, 
and a corresponding form of the verb was used ; as, " Thou singest ; " but 
gradually you has come to take its place, till the use of thou, except in 
the solemn style, is now wholly discontinued. You, therefore, is both sin- 
gular and plural in its application, but the verb does not change its form ; 
it invariably takes the plural form ; as, " You (meaning one) write" not 
writest,* 

EXERCISE. 

Count the words in the following sentences ; then substitute personal pro- 
nouns, and see how many words you gain thereby : — ~ 

The savages of North America spent the time of the savages of North 
America in hunting, and the wives of the savages of North America spent 
the time of the wives of the savages of North America in preparing food for 
ihe husbands of the wives of the savages of North America. 

Substitute the nouns and their modifying words for the pronouns in the 
following sentences : — 

At this time, the commander of the American forces and his army took 
i post at Harlem ; he now sought to ascertain the state of his enemy's forces 
on Long Island. Captain Nathan Hale volunteered his services ; he en- 
tered the British army in disguise. On his return, he was apprehended 
and sent to the cruel Marshal Cunningham, by whom he was ordered to 
execution without a trial. 

Alter the following sentences so as to make the subjects represent, first the 
speaker, then the hearer : — 
.John wrote a letter. Jacob loved Joseph. Paul preached at Athens. 
m£e -came to the rescue. They sailed at noon. The king was sick. Susan 
•Reaves l>er studies. The horse ran away. Washington loved the truth. 

Name f he pronouns in the following, and tell what words they stand 
for : — 

Jacob loved his son Joseph, and gave him a coat of many colors. Peter 
denied his Master ; he afterwards went and wept bitterly. Let him that 
ihinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. A man's heart deviseth his 
Way ; but the Lord directeth his steps. 

Collect all the erroneous expressions which you hear to-day, write them 
down, correct them, and be careful not to use them yourself. 



DECLENSION OE THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : — - 
First Person. 

Sing. Plu. 

Norn. I, We, 

Poss. My or mine, Our or ours, 

Obj. Me ; Us. 

* The Friends or Quakers still use thou, more commonly thee, in common ^onvef 
nation 



ETYMOLOGY PERIANAL, PRONOUNS. 



43 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Second Person. 
Sing. 

Thou, 

Thy or thine, 

Thee; 



Plu. 
Ye or you, 
Your or yours , 
You. 



Third Person. Masculine. 



Nom. 

Poss. 
Obj. 



Sing. 
He, 
His, 
Him ; 



Plu. 

They, 

Their or theirs, 

Them. 



Third Person. Feminine. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Sing. 

She, 

Her or hers, 

Her; 



Plu. 
They, 

Their or theirs, 
Them. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Third Person. 

Sing. 
It, 
Its, 
It; 



Neuter. 



Plu. 

They, 

Their or theirs 

Them. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



First Person. 
Sing. 

Myself, 



Myself; 



Plu. 
Ours elves, 

Ourselves 



Nom. 
Poss* 
Obj. 



Sing. 

Mas. 
Nom. Himself, 

Poss 

Obj. Himself ; 



Second Person. 

Sing. 
Thyself, 



Thyself ; 



Third Person. 



Plu. 
Yourselves, 



Yourselves. 



Fern. 
Herself, 

Herself ; 



NeuL 
Itself, 

Itself; 



PI* 



Themselves. 



Rem. 1. — Of the possessives, rny, thy, her, our, your, their, are used 
"vhen the noun is expressed ; mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, 
when it is understood, and the latter must be changed to the former when- 
ever the noun is supplied. " That book is yours ; this is mine." 4 lha 
oook is your book ; this is my book." 

Rem. 2. — When mine, thine, &c., are used as in the above example, 
they seem to perform a double office ; first, to represent the speaker, hear- 
er or person spoken of, as a possessor ; and, secondly, like other limiting 
or qualifying words, when the noun is understood, to represent or stand foi 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

that noun, not as a pronoun does, but as an adjective. Thus we say, 
" This [book] is an arithmetic ; that [book] is a geography." " The tiw* 
lent [persons] take it by force." " Mine [my task] was an easy ta.sk." 
Properly, neither of the above words is a noun. The first three are adjec- 
tives used to limit the noun understood, which follows them, and the last 
a personal pronoun in the possessive case, Used to limit the noun task, un- 
derstood. If it is ever proper to say that this, that, or violent are used as 
nouns, it is equally so of the word mine, not in its pronominal, but in its 
adiective otifce. 



EXERCISE, 

PASSING. 

Id parsing a pronoun, — 

(1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why : 
(2.) Tell what kind of pronoun. Why ? 
(3.) Tell what its antecedent is. 
(4.) Decline it. 

(o.) Give the person, number, gender. Why 5 
(6.) Rule for person, number, gender. Why ? 
(7.) Case and construction. 
(8.) Rule for construction. 

Note. — In parsing, let the pupil follow this order, and as soon as possi- 
ole, without any question from the teacher. The pronoun is parsed very 
much like the noun. 

Study the following models for parsing :— - 

"David brought his book, and laid it on the table." 

His . is a pronoun ; it takes the place of a noun ; personal; it is used both 
to represent a noun, and to show whether it is of the first, second, 
or third person; it refers to David's for its antecedent; (singular, 
nominative he, possessive his, objective him; plural, nominative 
they, possessive their or theirs, objective them ;) it is of the third per- 
son, singular number, mascidine gender, because its antecedent is 
(R-ule III. " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent m gender, 
number, and person; "J possessive case, and is used to limit book, by 
denoting possession, according to Rule VII. (Repeat it.) , 

It . . is a pronoun, (why?) personal, (why?) it has book for its antece- 
dent ; decline it ; is of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, because its antecedent book is, (Rule III.,) and objective case. 
Rule VIII. (Repeat, the rule.) 

"The messenger himself revealed the treachery/' 

Himself, is a pronoun, (why?) compound,, composed of him and self; it . 
has messenger for its antecedent ; third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, because its antecedent is, (Rule III.,) nomina- 
tive case, and used to identify or explain messenger, according to 
Rule VI. 

Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentences ;— « 

Joseph knew his brethren, but they knew not him. Jane dropped her 

'.an. ana ner brother gave it to her again. We cannot see the stars when 

tne light of the sun overpowers them. Thou shalt see me hereafter. .1 

Know von will receive, the child snd love it. Our house is at your service 



ETYMOLOGY RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 45 

Do thyself no harm. The king found himself in great distress. We 
must keep ourselves from temptation. I myself will do it. 

Write five sentence?, use personal pronouns in each, and then parse them 

Give the class, person, number, gender, (when it can be determined by the 

for, n,) and case of the following pronouns : — 

I, he, his, hers, mine, you, thou, they, them, us, we, myself, himself, 

they, herself, me, themselves, ourselves, my, thee, your, thine, herself, 

yourselves. 

Rewrite and correct the following sentences in every particular : — 
The carpenter broke the augur hisself. When i went to school, me and 
my sister sarah were learned how to use capitals, the master teached us 
how to speak correctly, and the scholars, writ down meny lessons their- 
selves. we always had good times a- criticizing what the other scholars 
had wrote. It was me, that disremembered the rules for changing the y in 
dutys and gloryfying, and / in sheafs, wifes, loafs, fust, i reckoned i 
knowed 'em, but it 'pears i didn't. Them words that I have here koted, 
" marys gownd " from marthas slate haint got no capital letter, and 
she don't mind the rule for the 'sessive case, nathan haint doted his eyes, 
nor crossed his teas, and his lines run down hill. Samuel oif'erred to 'sist 
me in my 'rethmetic if i would learn them rules for spellin'. 

Collect all the faulty expressions which you hear to-day. and correct them. 



EEL ATI VE T ; r*\a 

A relative pronoun is used to represent a preceding noun 
or pronoun, called the antecedent ; as, " Those who wish for 
favors must assist others." 

Rem. 1. — The relative, when used only as a pronoun, follows the ante- 
cedent ; when used both as a limiting adjective and a pronoun, it always 
precedes it ; as, " I will give you what money I have." 

Rem. 2. — The following distinctions will show the difference between a 
relative and a. personal pronoun : — 

(1.) The relative refers to an object always known, and either previously 
mentioned, or so clearly implied as to need no mention ; the personal 
pronouns refer always to an object known, and in the third person, to an 
object previously mentioned, but in the first and second persons, to an ob 
iect not previously mentioned. 

(2.) The personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical 
person ; I for the first, thou or you for the second, and he, she, or it for 
the third. The relative pronouns do not change their form to represent 
person. 

(3.) The essential difference is seen in their use in construction. The 
personal pronoun may represent the subject of an independent sentence ; 
the relative never ; as, " He is present." " Which is important." The 
first is a complete sentence ; the second needs some word, as measure, 
(which is important,) on which it may depend. 

Rem. 3. — The relative serves two purposes : one, as a pronoun to rep- 
resent a noun in any relation ; the other, as a connective joining the rela- 
tive clause to the antecedent. In this use it may be considered as a kind of 
auxiliary, employed to convert an independent proposition into a dependent 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

one, and to adapt it, as an adjective, to modify some antecedent noun ; as, 
for example, in speaking of 8,'cloud, if we say, " It is dark," the expression 
is an independent sentence ; but if we say, " which is dark," the expression 
is still a proposition, but not a sentence ; it is now, by the aid of which , 
fitted to limit the noun cloud; thus, " The cloud which is dark," 



SIMPLE RELATIVES. 

The simple relatives are, who, which, that, and what. 
Who is used to represent persons ; which and what, to rep- 
resent things ; and that, to represent both persons and things. 

Rem. 1. — The antecedent is the word for which the pronoun stands; 
it is that on which the relative clause depends, and is either a definite or 
an indefinite object. 

Rem. 2. — Who, ichich, and that usually refer to a definite antecedent; 
as, "The man who came." "The horse which died." "The tree that 
fell." In the sentence, "Who steals my purse steals trash," who refers 
to an indefinite antecedent. What may refer either to a definite or an in- 
definite antecedent; as, " I gave him what money he wanted," (definite.) 
" I gave him what [things] he wanted," (indefinite.) When the antece- 
dent is indefinite, the relative stands alone. 

Rem. 3. — What, in additV "-'the other functions of a relative, per- 
fcr •. x\\ \t of a limiting adjective, and is, hence, placed before the noun 
whicii limits and which, as a pronoun, it also represents ; as, "He 
had what furniture was left " = Tie had that furniture which was left 
When the noun to which, as an adjective, it belongs, is indefinite, and 
therefore not expressed, what takes its place, and is an adjective used as a 
noun, (see Adjective used as a noun, p. 33,) and may be parsed, first, as 
the indefinite antecedent, and, secondly, as a relative. 

Rem. 4. — The word that is a relative only when who or which can be 
substituted for it ; as, " He that (who) getteth wisdom loveth his own 
soul." " What private grief they have, alas ! I know not, that (which) 
made them do it." It is a pronominal adjective when immediately followed 
by a noun expressed or understood ; as, " That book." It is a subordi- 
nate conjunction when it joins a dependent clause to some part of a princi 
pal; as, " I know thai my Redeemer liveth." 

Rem. 5. — What is a relative, (1.) when it can be changed into that 
lohich'; as, " It is what (that ivhich) I wanted ; " (2.) when it both limits 
and relates to a noun ; as, " What ore was found, Was very poor " = That 
ore which was found, &c. It is an interrogative pronoun, when used alone 
(belonging to an indefinite object) to ask a question ; as, " What [things] 
do you want ? " It is an interrogative adjective when used to limit a noun, 
(a definite object,) and also to ask a question ; as, *' What excuse does he 
render ? " It is an interjection when it denotes rn exclamation ; as, 
" What ! hare you come ? " 

Rem. 6. — When that is used as the object of a preposition, the latter 
is always placed at the end of the clause ; and that rncsv be changed it 
whom or which whenever the preposition precedes ; as, ■'* V was James thaf 
E depended upon " = upon whom I depended. 

Rem. 7. — By an ellipsis of the relative, as, after such, m^r.v, ard samt 
seems to take its place, and may be regarded as a relatrv ■», *-h n^f yr^Twt 
■y speaking, it is never a relative; as, "The Lord added to tr* f*\\£ 
^aiiy, such ad [were those who] should be saved." 



ETYMOLOGY COMPOUND RELATIVES. 47 



COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

The compound relatives are whoever, whosoever, whichever, 
whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

Rem. 1. — These are formed from the simple relatives by adding the ad- 
verbs ever and soever. 

Rem. 2. — Whoever and whosoever refer to some indefinite antecedent, 
as he, the person, any one, and are equivalent to any one who; as, " Who- 
ever hopes a faultless piece to see." Whichever and whichsoever refer to 
a definite object, to which they belong as adjectives ; as, " Whichever way 
you take will lead to the city." They are equivalent to any — which* 
Whatever and whatsoever belong, as adjectives, either to a definite or an in- 
definite object, and relate, as pronouns, to the same, (see Rem. 3, above;) 
as, " We are interested in whatever occupation you follow." " Whatsoever 
is more than these cometh of evil." They are equivalent to that — which, 
or any thing — which. 

DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

Sing, ty Plu. Sing. Sf Plu. 
Nom. Who, Which, 

Poss. Whose, Whose, 

Obj. Whom ; Which. 

Tttat and what have no variation. 



EXERCISE. 

Learn the following models for parsing : — 

" The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with 
confidence." 

Who . is a pronoun, (why?) relative, (why }) it has man for its antece- 
dent; nominative who, possessive whose, objective whom ; plural, 
the same ; third person, singular number, masculine gender, be- 
cause its antecedent is, (Rule III. Repeat it,) nominative case, and 
used as the subject of the proposition, " who is attached." Rule I. 
(Repeat it.) 

" Cherish true patriotism, whose root is benevolence." 

Whose is a relative pronoun ; it has patriotism for its antecedent ; nomina- 
tive who, &c. ; third person, singular number, neuter gender, (Rule 
III. Repeat it,) possessive case, and is used to limit root by de- 
noting possession. Rule VII. (Repeat it.) 

* Compassion is an emotion of which we should never be ashamed." 

Which is a relative pronoun,^ (antecedent, decline, person, number, gen 
der, Rule III.,) objective case, and used as the object of the preposi- 
tion of. Rule XIII. 

" Here is the sofa that he sat upon." 

Thai . is a relative pronoun, (antecedent, decline, person, number, gen 
der, Rule III.,) objective case, and used as the object of the prejx>si 
tion ujpon. (See Rem. 6, p. 46.) 



% 

48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" I have ascertained what lesson we must learn.** 

What . is apron/nm, used both as an adjective and a pronoun ; as an adjec 
tive it belongs to lesson, according to Rule V. ; (repeat it;) as a 

Enoun, it is a relative, and relates to lesso?i for its antecedent ; 
"d person, singular number, neuter gender, Rule III., objective 
case, and is used as the object of the verb must learn, accord- 
ing to Rule VIII. (Repeat it.) 

" I have ascertained what we must learn." 

What . is a pronoun, used both as an adjective and a pronoun ; as an ad- 
jective it belongs to some noun (thing) understood, and hence may 
be taken as a noun, (see model for parsing that, p. 89 ;) indeclinable, 
third person, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, and is 
used as the object of have ascertained. Rule VIII. As a pronoun, 
it is a relative, relating to some indefinite antecedent (thing) un- 
derstood, (see Rem. 3, p. 46,) or to what, representing thing, and re- 
garded as the antecedent, indeclinable, third person, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender, objective case, and used as the object of must 
learn. Rule VIII. 

" "We will furnish him with whatever clothing he may need." 

Whatever is a compound relative, composed of what and ever. (Imitate 
the first model for what.) 

"We provide whatever may be needed." 
Whatever is a compound relative. (Imitate the second model for what.) 

Point out and parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences : — 
The child who is obedient will be beloved. The bud that built her nest 
on the tree was killed. The apples which you gave me are sour. The 
man whom you saw was my brother. The boat in which we sailed 
has been sold. The grass that was mowed by the farmer, was soon withered. 
The gentleman whose kindness we experienced, was a teacher. He that 
is slow to wrath, is of great understanding. 

Point oid the antecedents in the examples above. 

Point oid and parse the compound relatives in the following examples : — 

Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. 

Whatever is, is right. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it. Whoever 

seeks the good of others, will himself be blest. Darkness besets me, which 

ever way I turn. 

Correct the following examples : — 

The cow whom my father bought, has strayed away. The boy whicfi 
sets on the seat yender hasn't got his sums did. The sun lays into our 
south winder beautiful. This is the man who we sent for. The boy who I 
see at school yesterday was e'en-a' most as tall agin as i be. This 'ere 
task of 'ritin' sentences is putty hard for one that don't know no more of 
the grammar book than i does, howsomever i never gives up for trifles 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The interrogative pronouns are used in asking questions. 
They are who, used to inquire for persons ; what and tvhich, 



ETHOLOGY I'RONtHTXS. 19 

for things , as, " TV/w gave thee that authority ? " u Which 
house does he live in ? " " What, have I to do with thee ? n 

Rem. 1. — When a definite object is inquired for, ich'tt and winch nre 
adjectives used to limit the objects inquired for ; as, " What books do you 
want ? ' " Which road shall we take ? " When an indefinite object is* in- 
quired for, the interrogative takes its place, or belongs to it, understood ; 
as, " What (thing) do you want ? " 

Rem. 2. — "When an interrogative sentence is quoted, and Incorporated 
into another sentence, it loses much of its interrogative character ; the 
interrogative pronoun becomes a connective, and as the incorporated clause 
is an unanswered question, the pronoun refers to some person or thing 
both unknown and un mentioned. It may therefore be called an indefinite 
interrogative pronoun. Example. " Whdis concealed in the garden ? " The 
name has not been mentioned, and although he may be a familiar friend, yet 
as the concealed- one, he is unknown. The answer, therefore, must be, "I 
do not know who is concealed in the garden." Compare this with, " I do 
not know him who is concealed in the garden." Here who is a relative 
pronoun having him for its antecedent. 

Rem. 3. — Besides pronouns, various interrogative adverbs are used in 
asking questions ; as, Why? Where? When) How? 



EXERCISE. 

Point old the interrogative pronouns in the following examples : — 
"Who has learned his lesson ? Which seat do you prefer ? What have 
you found in the garden ? For what are you punished ? Whose school 
do you attend ? Who went with you ? Whom do you follow ? W T hich 
way has she gone ? 

Tell which of the above examples are pronouns, and which adjectives. 
(See Rem. 1.) 

Tell which of the following pronouns are relative, which interrogative : — 
He whose image thou art. From what fountain flowed their light ? 
What title dost thou bear ? Whose genius had angelic wings. What 
readiest way would bring me to the place ? Who found the flower ? I 
am he whom ye seek ? He found the book for which I sent him. Of 
whom do "you speak ? That which was lost is found. 

Correct the following examples : — 

Who do you want ? Whom is it ? Who do you follow ? Who are 
you looking for ? 

Rewrite the following sentences t and correct them in all respects : — 
Why don't you eat nothin' ? ridin' don't agree with you i guess, 
taint so in New York. Do you go on your own hook ? Nice go- 
ings on, I dare say, Mr. Caudle. The Senate has gone it strong on the 
mileage. You cant ask me for nothin i haint got. She did it real nice. 
That was first rate. 

Parse the above examples according to the following models — 

" Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? " 

WJto . is a p>'o?ioun, (why ?) interrogative, (why ?) its antecedent (subse- 
quent) is not expressed ; nominative roho, possessive whose, ob- 
jective whom; plural, the same; third person, singular number, 
masruline r/ender, because its antecedent (subsequent, no one im- 

5 



50 ENTxLISH GRAMMAR. 

plied) is, (Rule III. Repeat it.) nominative case, and used as 
Lie subject of the proposition, "who shall separate." Rul I 
(Repeat it.) 

" Whose books have you found ? " 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun; nominative who, &c, f person, num 
her, and gender depending upon the answer,) possessive case, and 
is used to limit books by denoting possession. Rule VII. (Re- 
peat it.) 

" What seek ye ? " 

What . is an interrogative pronoun ; indeclinable ; third person, (number 
and gender depending on the answer,) objective case, and used as 
the object of the verb. Rule VIII. (Repeat it.) 

" What lesson shall we learn ? " 

What . is & pronominal adjective, used interrogatively, and belongs to lei- 
son for which it inquires. Rule V. 



VERBS. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Do you see me use this chalk upon the board ? What do I do ? Ans. 
You write. Put this answer on your slates. Now, what do you do ? 
Ans. We write. Let all who have written the words raise the hand. 
What do you do now ? Ans. We raise our hands. What am I doing now ? 
(The teacher walks towards his desk.) Ans. You are walking. When 
we do any thing, as write, walk, or raise the hand, we act, and the word 
which expresses the action is called a verb, and the acting person or thing 
is called the subject. What can a lamb do ? Ans. Pain, frisk, frolic, jump, 
play. Now write these words on your slates. What are you now doing ? 
Ans. We are writing. What do you call the words which you have written ? 
Ans. Verbs. What is the subjectof each ? Who speaks? Ans. Ellen speaks. 
What do you call speaks t What can a horse do ? Ans. Run. walk, gallop, 
trot, prance, eat, drink, draw, kick, sleep. What kind of words are these ? 
Ans. Verbs. What is the subject of each ? Tell what a bird, a. fish, a dog, a 
toad, a bee, can do ? What are the words which tell what they do ? See this 
book ; it lies upon the desk. What does the book do ? Ans. It does noth- 
ing. True, it does nothing, but what telh something about it ? Ans. Lies. 
This chair stands upon the floor. What does the chair do ? Ans. Noth- 
ing. What tells something about it? Ans. Stands. When words are 
used to tell or say what state things are in, they are called verbs. Wha A 
then, are lies and stands ? Ans. Verbs. (The* teacher strikes upon his 
desk.) What does the desk do ? Ans. Nothing. What was done to 
the desk ? Ans. It teas struck. (The teacher tears a piece of paper.) 
What does the paper do ? Ans. Nothing. Very good ; but what is done 
to the paper ? Ans. It is torn. These words, which tell what is done to an 
object, are called verbs. What does the blackboard do ? Ans. Nothing. Js 
there a blackboard ? Ans. There is. Is what? Ans. Is a blackboard. Is 
there a desk ? Ans. There is. Words which tell what is or exists are 
Vi,rbs. Tell the verbs in these examples, and then learn the definition 
of the verb : The boy plays. The girl sleeps. The lamp is broken. 
There is a slate in the desk. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — EXERCISES. 51 

A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state , 
as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 

Rem. 1. — The being, action, or state may be affirmed, assumed, oi 
used abstractly; as, "George runs.'" "George running" "To run." 
When an affirmation is made, the verb is either the predicate or copula of 
the proposition, and is said to be finite ; when the action of the verbis as- 
swned, it takes the construction of the adjective, is joined to the subject, 
and is called a participle ; when it is used abstractly, it is separated from 
the subject, and being unlimited by its person or number, it is said to be 
infinitive, (unlimited. J 

Rem. 2. — Affirm, as here used, includes an absolute declaration; as, 
M Emma learns ; " a conditional statement ; as, " If Emma learns ; " an in- 
terrogation ; as, " Does Emma learn ? " a petition; as, " May Emma learn ; " 
a command ; as, "Emma, learn." 

Rem. 3. — The abstract or substantive verb is the simple Be, hav- 
ing no other power or value than to assert some attribute of a noun. 
When the attribute is a quality, this verb must always be used ; as, " Lead 
is heavy ; " but when the attribute is an action, it may blend with the verb 
be, and then both become one word ; as, " The sun is rising." " The sun 
rises." The combined form then takes the name of verb, and undergoes 
inflections to represent voice, mode, tense, number, and person ; in all other 
cases, the verb to be undergoes these variations. These verbs are called 
attributive, because to the pure verb they join an attribute. 

Rem. 4. — The verb to be is attributive, whenever it is used to assert ex- 
istence ; as, " There icas a man sent from God." When thus used, the 
verb is commonly followed by its subject, and preceded by the expletive 
" there," which serves no other purpose than to introduce the sentence 
and indicate this peculiarity of the verb. 

Every finite verb represents some person or thing, as act- 
ing or existing in a certain state, and this person or thing is 
called the subject ; as, " Frank plays." " She sleeps." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the verbs arid their subjects in the following examples : The 
clouds vanish. The vapor rises. The plant lives. Flowers die. Chil- 
dren sing. They stand. Can you see ? Here they are ! The ice melts. 

Write appropriate vwbs for the following nouns as subjects : — 
Samuel, the pen, the book, flowers, we, oceans, moon, the earth, forests, 
the king, Victoria. 

Write appropriate nouns, as subjects for the following verbs : — 
Rules, is, thinks, hopes, learns, shine, grow, dig, revolve, sits, fears 
blossom, arise, sink. 

Alter the following verbs so as to write them properly with their sub- 
jects : — 

Time fly. The grass grow. The rain fall. The pupil try. The officer 
defy. The teacher say. The gas burn. The boy do. The peasant woo. 
The dove coo. The tailor cut. The dog bite. 

Alter the following nouns and pronouns so that the verbs (as given) may 
unite with tliem : — 
The merchants says. The sailor see. They thinks. He play. Yow 



«** ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

iiopest. Some persons believes. The honest farmers labors. The diligenl 
pupil learn. The old soldiers is maintained. The pleasant tasks is done. 

Correct the following errors : — 

Mans destiny cannot be fully none, lucy has rote these lines of po'try 
on her slate i should be bizzy two for satan finds some mischief still for 
idle hands to do. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 

Note. — Let the teacher here give an oral exercise, the object of which 
shall be to exhibit the distinction between a transitive and an intransitive, 
a regular and an irregular verb. After the distinction is fully made, 
let the class attempt a statement of it, before learning the following 
definitions : — 

Verbs are divided, according to their use, into transitive 
and intransitive. 

A transitive verb requires the addition of an object to 
complete its meaning ; as, " The servant opened the door" 

An intransitive verb does not require the addition of an 
object to complete its meaning ; as, " The sun rises." " The 
horse runs." 

Rem. 1. — Verbs may be divided on account of their relation to the 
subject into, — 

(1.) The abstract or substantive verb Be, which represents no attribute of 
the subject whatever, but serves merely as a copula, or link, to bind an at- 
tribute to the subject. 

(2.) Attributive or mixed verbs, in which an attribute denoting an action 
or state of the subject is blended with the copula ; as, runs = is running ; 
is being the copula, and running the attribute. 

Rem. 2. — Attributive verbs, including also the copula to be, have been 
divided into those which represent the subject in an active state, (active 
verbs ;) those which represent it in a passive state, that is, in such a state as 
to receive or suffer an action, (passive verbs ;) and those which represent the 
subject in neither of these states, (neuter verbs,) that is, a state in which 
it neither acts nor receives the effect of an action. But this distinction 
has little to do with the construction of language. It is the relation of 
the verb to a succeeding term that renders a classification important;* 
and hence, — 

Rem. 3. — The terms transitive and intransitive have been general- 
ly adopted by recent grammarians, as best suited to the purposes of 
construction. Although the idea of an act originating in an agent, and 
*' passing over" to an object, seems inapplicable to such verbs as have, 
possess, receive, acquire, and many others, still the terms, as defined above, 
a.e liable to little or no objection. 

* The old division is retained in the dictionaries, and the learner should under- 
stand, in consulting a dictionary, that v. a. after a verb is equivalent to transitive, v. n. 
to intransitive. Thus, run, fly, walk, though they represeiu the sab^ec* i r a very ac- 
tive state, are marked r. n. = verb nenler. 



ETYMOLQGY — VERBS — EXERCISES. 53 

Rem. 4.— The object or complement of the transitive verb stands as an 
answer to the question Whatt with the verb ; is, " r J'lie ox eats (What?) 
hay, grass, oats, corn, Sec. To determine whether a verb is transitive or 
intransitive, we have only to use this test : ask with it the question What ? 
or Whomt and if the sense requires that a noun or pronoun meaning a 
different thing from the subject should be added, it is transitive ; other- 
wise it is intransitive. 

Rem. 5. — When the noun or pronoun thus added means the same 
person or thing as the subject, it is not the object, but is a predicate-no?.* .?. 
native, and the verb is either intransitive, or transitive in the passive voice. 
All such verbs perform the office of the copula, and are, hence, called cop- 
ulative verbs. These are he, (the simple copula,) become, seem, appear, 
stand, walk, and other verbs of position, motion, and condition; the pas - 
^ve verbs is called, is 'named, is styled, is appointed, is constituted, is elected 
is chosen, is made, is esteemed, is reckoned, and others. 

Rem. 6. — A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily implies three 
terms — a subject or agent, a predicate, and an object. When the verb as- 
sumes the passive form, the foregoing order is inverted, and we have an 
object, & predicate, «nd a subject or agent ; as, " The locusts (agent = sub.) 
devoured (pred.J the grass," (obj.J == The grass (obj. = sub.) was devoured 
(pred.J by the locusts, (agent.) An intransitive verb requires but two 
terms, a subject and predicate, and as it cannot assume the passive form, 
(except by the aid of a preposition,) the terms can undergo no such 
change as above. 

Rem. 7 — Many verbs are transitive in one signification, and intransi- 
tive in another. When the object is not necessarily implied, it is better to 
consider such verbs intransitive, and not transitive, because an object may 
be supplied; as, " She sings beautifully," (intransitive ;) " She sings so- 
prano," (transitive.) 

Rem. 8. — Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive when 
used with a causative signification ; as, " The train usually runs at the 
rate of twenty-five miles an hour ; but they ran a train (caused it run) 
at the rate of forty." Some verbs become transitive when they take an 
object after them of a kindred signification ; as, " He ran a race, played 
& game" 



EXERCISES. 

Tell -which of the following verbs are transitive, which intransitive : — 
Dora loves her mother. The golden gates open. The moon silvers the 

distant hills. Lily has found her ring. Eleanor writes poetry. The snow 

melts. The icy fetters break. The innocent lamb dies. The child plays. 

You found the pearl. The twilight deepens. Does Cornelia live there ? 

The fragrant flowers bloom. The king rules. She received a letter. 

Write an apjyropriate subject and object for each of the following verbs : — 
Bings, learn, find, hide, fears, remembers, inflicts, receives, lift, hears, 
renews, reviews, write. 

Model. The sexton rings the bell. 

Write an appropriate verb for each of the following subjects and ob- 
jects : — 

The scholar his books. The sun the snow. I the 

merry sleigh bells. The lady her friends. We a reward. The 

boy his sled. They the tables. The little boy his 

locking horse. The slave the diamond. They charades. 

5* 



i>± ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rosy-fingered Aurora the gates of day. Milton - x^&di&t 

Lost. 

Substitute correct and more elegant expressions for the following in 
Italics : — 

I have got to go. Nobody told me. She had not ought to tell. Ain't you 
afraid ? I have came home. I done my work. I learnt her to do it. I 
ain't alone. In she come. He knowed his lesson. Is not this grand 
weather ? Thinks says I, I will do it. I reckon you can. It rains some 
I shall be ten year old come May. Do you like those kind of things f She 
didn't know nobody. It is her". Mary and me are to home. She brought 
me a great big apple. She fetched me a book. I found her a-crym\ 1 
am glad to see ye ; will ye se' down? 

Verbs are divided, according to the \r form, into regular and 
irregular. 

A regular verb is one which forms its past tense, and 
oast participle, by adding ed * to the present tense ; as, love, 
yoved, loved ; gain, gained, gained. 

An irregular verb is one which does not form its past 
tense and past participle by the addition of ed * to the pres- 
ent tense ; as, see, saw, seen ; write, wrote, written, 

A defective verb is one in which some of the parts are 
wanting ; as, may, might, (participle wanting.) 

An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in the con- 
jugation of other verbs ; as, have, in have loved. 

An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is 
asserted independently of any, particular subject; as, "It 
rains." "It snows." 

To verbs belong voice? mode, tense, number, and person. 



VOICE. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

In the sentence, " The bee builds a cell," which does something, the 
bee or the cell ? Ans. The bee. Which is acted upon? Ans. The cell. 
Now, suppose we express the same in another way, and say, "A cell is 
built by the bee," what changes have we made ? Ans. We have put 
cell before the verb, we have changed builds into is built, we have inserted 
by, and we have placed bee last. Which now acts, the bee or the cell f A ?is 
The bee, as before. Which is acted upon ? Ans. The cell, as before 
Which is the subject of the proposition now ? A?is. Cell. Which was 
*he subject before ? Ans. Bee. Then, when bee is the subject, the sub- 

* The suffix to every regular verb is ed. If the present tense ends in e mute, that 
tetter must be dropped by Rule II., page 15. 






ETYMOLOGY VOICE EXERCISE. 55 

*ect acts ■ but when cell is the subject, the subject is acted upon ; and when 
the subject acts, the verb is builds ; when the subject is acted upon, the 
verb is, is built. The former is called the active voice, the latter the pis- 
sive voice. 

Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows 

whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 

There are two voices — the active and the passive.* 
The active voice represents the subject as acting; as, 

" John struck William.'" 

Here John is the subject, and John perfov /ns the act. 

The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon , 
as, " William was struck by John." 

Here William is the subject, but he does not act: he only receives the act ; or is 
acted upon. 

Rem. 1. — Any sentence, having for its predicate a transitive verb, may 
be changed or transformed by changing the active to the passive voice, or 
the passive to the active. The same meaning, or nearly the same, will be 
expressed in either case. 

Rem. 2. — A transitive verb necessarily implies the presence of an active 
and a passive person or thing. The one performs the act, the other re- 
ceives or suffers it. If the active one is made the subject of the sentence, 
the verb is said to be in the active voice ; if the passive one is made the sub- 
ject, the verb is said to be in the jussive voice ; as, " The locusts devoured 
(active) the grass." " The grass was devoured (passive) by the locusts." 
Strictly speaking, the ideas of active and passive, though manifesting them- 
selves in the form of the verb, are not attributes of the verb, but of the per- 
sons or things connected with it, just as comparison, though exhibiting 
itself in the forms of the adjective, is really the bringing together of two 
or more objects, and not qualities. , 

The following are all the possible cases which can occur : — 

I. One and the same person or thing may represent both relations, the 
active and the passive; as, "He struck himself." " She struck herself" 
" It destroyed itself." " You struck yourself." "/struck myself" (See 
Personal Pronoun, Rem. 3, p. 35.) 

II. Two different persons or things may be employed to represent these 
relations. 

(1.) One may be simply active, and the other simply passive ; as, 
" George struck William " = William was struck by George. 

(2.) Each may be, at the same time, both active and passive ; as, " They 
struck each other" = They struck, each [struck] the other. (See p. 35.) 

III. Three different persons or things may be employed ; one active, 
and the other passive. 

(1.) One may act, another suffers the act, while the third stands as that 
to which the act is tending ; as, "He (act) gave me (tending to) a book" 



* Passive means suffering, that is, suffering or receiving an act, the subject or l» 
eetvor, meanwhile, being in an inactive state. 



5() ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

fpass.^ " He told me his history " = His history was told me by him a. i 
was told his history by Awa. 

(2.) One acts, another is acted upon, and thereby transformed or made 
mto the third ; as, " They made him an officer " = He was made an officer 
by them — An officer was made of him by them. In this case there are 
but two different persons or things. The second and third denote the 
same individual. 

Hem. 3. — When the agent is unknown, or when we wish to conceal it, 
by drawing attention only to the act and the object affected by it, we use 
the passive voice ; as, " Gold is found (by some one unknown, or known, 
but not mentioned) in California." But if we wish to make the agent 
prominent, we use the active voice ; as, " MGses conducted the Israelites 
out of Egypt." 

Rem. 4. — Some intransitive verbs, when accompanied by the preposi- 
tion following, admit of a passive form ; as, " They laughed at him " = lie 
was laughed at. So, wiien a verb takes two objects, one direct and the 
other indirect, the latter is sometimes made the subject of the verb in the 
passive voice ; as, "I told him a story " = He was told a story. 

Hem. 5. — Certain intransitive verbs, as come, arrive, fall, rise, &c, 
admit of a passive form, yet with an instransitive signification, as will be 
seen by observing that the agent or actor, not the object, is the subject of 
the sentence in either form ; as, "Babylon is fallen,'" (has fallen.) This 
idiom is less common now than formerly, and may be regarded as an imi- 
tation of the French or German forms of similar verbs. 



EXERCISE. 

Tell which of the following verbs are in the active voice, which in thl 
passive : — 

The moon gives a pleasant light. The book was written by my father. The 
song of the bud is heard in the grove. Leverrier discovered a new planet. 
How doth the little busy bee improve each shining hour. Knowledge 
gives power. The stars were hidden by the dark cloud. The ice was 
melted by the warm rays of the sun. The scholars corrected the inelegant 
expressions which they used. The heavens declare the glory of God. 
The letter was written by the lawyer. He found the money. 

Change in the above sentences, the verbs in the active voice mto the passive, 
and the verbs in the passive voice into the active. 



Represent each of the following objects as acted upon by some 
object ; — 

Pencils, paper, sound, table, looking glass, gas, chair, bell, pens, books, 
gold, silver, air, ceiling, hat, cane, letters, water, ice, snow. 

Model. Pencils are broken, &c. 

'Represent the following objects as acting upon some other object : — 

Bees, children, philanthropists, the canary birds, discipline, imagination, 

exercise, the boy, the glass, pins, shoes, scholars, men, clouds, the watck, 

the cat, father, teachers, ministers, jewellers. 

Model. Bees gather honev. &c. 



ETYMOLOGY MODE. 



MODE. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 



I see a dove upon the portico ; but as I approach him, he flies away. I 
now say to you, while he is yet on the wing, "The dove is flying away." 
Who of you would think of looking on the portico for the dove ? Ans. 
No one. But again, I see the dove as before, and I say to you, " The 
dove may fly away." Where would you now look for the dove ? Ans. 
On the portico. But have I not spoken of his flying away ? Yes, indeed, 
but you have not said that he is actually flying away. Then, to say some- 
tiling about flying away, does not always mean actually flying away. I 
may think of a dove flying ; I may imagine one flying, but is he there- 
fore, flying ? Ans. He is not. So, when I wish to show what actually 
takes place, I have one mode of speaking, and when I wish to show what 
nas been merely thought of, or imagined, but not yet realized, or actually 
done, I have another mode of speaking. Thus, when I say, " The boy 
is j>} aging," or " The boy may play, can play, or must play," which expres- 
sion shows you that he actually plays ? and which allows you to suppose 
him at rest ? Again, suppose I say, " If the boy play," does he play ? 
A?is. He does not. It only supposes him to play. If now the boy were 
unoccupied, and you desired him to play, how. would you express that de- 
sire ? Ans. By saying, " Come, boy, play with us." Thus you would employ 
another mode of speaking. All these ways of speaking are called modes. 
The following definitions will show you how many, and what the modes 
are : — 

Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or state is 
asserted. 

Rem. 1. — Mode does not show the manner of the action or state, but the 
manner of its assertion. It may be asserted as a reality, or as something im- 
agined, that may, can, or must take place, or as something imagined or sup- 
posed, which is placed under a condition, or as something desired. The 
manner of the action or state is expressed by means of limiting words ; 
as, " The soldier fought (a reality) bravely," (manner of the act ;) " The 
soldier may fight (something imagined) bravely," (manner of the supposed 
act.) 

Rem. l. — The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb ; for, since 
it does not assert action at all, it cannot be said to have any manner or 
mode of assertion. The same may be said of the participles. In fact, the 
infinitive is a participle, partaking of the properties of the noun and the 
verb, as the (so called) participles partake of the properties of the adjective 
and the verb. 

There are commonly reckoned five modes — the indica- 
tive, the potential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the 
infinitive. 

The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually existing : 
as, u James loves." u William was struck." 

The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, permission, 
necessity, or duty of acting, or being in a certain state ; as 
c We can sing." " You may write" " He must read. 
1 They should obey the law." 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The subjunctive mode asserts a thing as conditional, ur 
doubtful; as, "If he leave me." " Though he slay me." 

The imperative mode asserts a command, an entreaty, or 
a permission; as, " Write." "Go thou." "Be admon- 
ished." 

The infinitive mode represents the action or state as an 
abstract noun ; as, " To write" " To be seen" 

Rem. 1. — The indicative mode is used in principal propositions, and is 
employed to represent what is actual, real, or absolute. It may be used in 
interrogative or exclamatory sentences ; as, "Has he arrived?" "The 
villain has fired the dwelling ! " It is often used in subordinate proposi- 
tions, but always to represent what is actual ; as, " I know that he dis- 
covered (actually) the plot." 

Rem. 2. — The potential mode is also used in principal propositions, 
not, however, to represent the actual, but that which, at the time of speak- 
ing, exists, or is supposed to exist, only in idea — that which is merely im- 
agined or thought of. The ideal act or state, however, is supposed to have 
some relation to reality. It can become a reality ; that is, there is no ini- 
possibilit) 7 in the way of its realization ; no ability is wanting : it may 
become a reality, that is, permission is granted, or in the final result per- 
haps it will be a reality : it must become actual, that is, a necessity, or an 
obligation exists. This mode may be used in interrogative, exclamatory, 
or supplicatory sentences ; as, " Can he leave the city in safety ? " " He 
may be assassinated ! " " May the truth be victorious." It may be used 
in subordinate propositions, but always to represent what is ideal or what 
has not been realized; as, "He says that I may (I do not now) attend 
school." The potential may be known by the auxiliaries, may, can, must t 
might, could ^ would, should. 

Rem. 3. — The subjunctive mode is used exclusively in subordinate 
propositions, and hence its name, (sub, under, and jungo, I join.) It is 
joined to the verb of the principal proposition by the subordinate conjunc- 
tions, if, though, although, lest, except, that, save that, imless, provided 
that, and some others ; they impart the idea of doubt, contingency, or 
conditionality . Whatever of futurity may be implied in the subjunctive, is 
to be accounted for either from the fact that any thing that is conditional 
or contingent is yet to be realized, (if ever,) or from the influence of a sup- 
pressed auxiliary, such as shall or should, which imparts (though under- 
stood) the idea of futurity ; as, " Though he (should) slay me, yet will I 
trust in him." 

The subjunctive represents an ideal act, or a real act, conceived only as an 
ilea, and places it under a condition accompanied with more or less doubt. 
As to a distinctive form of the subjunctive, it can scarcely be said to have 
any, unless it be found in the present tense, or present and past of to be ; 
and. in all such cases, (with the single exception of were, in examples like " If 
it were," " If I ivere") by supplying an ellipsis, they may be referred to the 
forms of the indicative future or the past potential ; as, " If it rain, we shall 
not leave " = If it should rain, &c. " Till one greater man restore (shall 
restore) us, and regain (shall regain) the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse." 
The majority of writers, at the present time, employ the forms of the indic- 
ative present ; as, " If it rains ; " " If he leaves." " Hence the subjunctive 
may be regarded as borrowing its forms from the indicative and potential 
modes. 

Rem. 4. — The imperative mode is used in principal propositions. It is 
.he mode which expresses trill, or desire. It may usually be known by 



i 



ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES. J>!» 

the omission of the subject; as, " Read, (thou,) write" The force of thi* 
mode, under the same form, depends upon the relation of the parties. If 
a superior speaks imperatively to an inferior, it is a command; if an 
equal to an equal, it is an exhortation or an entreaty ; if an inferior to a su- 
perior, it is a prayer or supplication. The imperative is made subordinate 
only in a direct quotation ; as, " God said, Let there be light." It is often 
elegantly put for a conditional clause; as, "Let hut the commons hear 
this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds " = 
Could the commons, &c., or, If the commons could but hear, &c. 

Hem. 5. — The infinitive is used in abridged propositions, and hence is 
wholly dependent, being incorporated as an element of another proposi- 
tion. It does not assert any thing ; it is not limited by the number and 
person of a subject, and hence its name, infinitive = unlimited, in distinc- 
tion hom finite, which is applied to all verbs used in construction with their 
subjects, and thereby limited by the number and person of the latter. 

The infinitive is an abstract noun, and, as such, may become, (1.) the sub- 

■ct of a proposition ; as, " To err is human " = It is human to err. (2.) 
►Vith the copula it may become the medicate; as, "To obey is to enjoy." 
(3.) It may be in apposition ; as, Delightful task to rear the tender thought. 
(4.) It may be the object of a transitive verb ; as, " She loves to sing." 
(5 ) It may be the object of a preposition ; as, " He is about to go." But 
while it has the construction of a noun, it is modified like a verb. It may 
be in the active or passive voice ; as, to love, to be loved ; it may be in the 
present or perfect tense ; as, to love, to have loved; it may govern an ob- 
ject, or he limited by an adverb, like any verb, but is never qualified by an 
adjective, although it may have an adjective in the predicate belonging to 
it; as, "To steal is base." 

Although the infinitive is an abstract noun, it may, nevertheless, be as- 
sociated with the object from which it has been abstracted ; as, " The sol- 
dier faints," (finite,) "for the soldier to faint" (infin. ;) "He goes" 
(finite,) "for h im to go" (infin. ;) " we told him to go," (infin.) 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the mode of each of the following verbs : — 

The walk is pleasant. If it rains, I shall not go to Boston. The chil- 
dren went into the garden. What is a thought-flower ? May I go to 
the concert ? Hear the rain pattering upon the roof. I will stay at home. 
Be entreated by me. I love to hear music. If I send her home, she will 
be unhappy. Do let me help you ! The lamb is the emblem of innocence. 
I must not stay. Do you see the snow flakes ? How pure and white they 
are ! He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. Hope thou in God. 
Whom shall I fear ? 

Write a subject to each of the following verbs, putting them first in the 
indicative, and then in the potential modes : — 

Change, exalt, console, go, vary, turn, weep, mourn, lament, fear, ride, 
travel, exhaust, walk, hope, reconcile, grow, know, pity, do, sleep. 

Select from your reading lessons examples of each of the modes. 

Correct the faulty expressions which you have collected. 



PARTICIPLES. 

A participle is a word having the signification of a verk 
but the construction of an adjective ; as, " We found hint 



GO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lying on the ground." " Having written his letter, he seat 
4; to his friend. " 

Rem. 1. — The participle is so called from its participating the prop- 
erties of the verb and adjective. It is the attributive part of the verb 
alone ; it is the being, action, or state deprived of the power of assertion ; 
and therefore, when joined without the copula to the noun whose attribute 
it expresses, it must be assumed, (not predicated,) just as an adjective is 
assumed under similar circumstances. It has the meaning of the verb, is 
modified like the verb, but is used like the adjective. 

Rem. 2. — It is not a distinct part of speech, but is derived directly from 
the verb, the present by adding ing, the past by adding ed, to all regu- 
lar verbs, and the perfect by prefixing to the past the auxiliary having. 

There are, properly, two participles — the present and the 
perfect ; as, reading, having read ; (being) loved, having 
been loved. 

Rem. 1. — The'se two participles correspond to the present and perfect 
tenses of the verb. They are used in abridged propositions ; the former 
when the proposition before its abridgment was in the present, past, or 
future tense ; the latter when it was in either of the perfect tenses. 

There are, however, three forms, commonly called parti- 
ciples — the present, the past, and the perfect. 



EXAMPLES. 

Pres. Past. Perf. 

Active Voice . loving, ' loved, having loved. 
Passive Voice . (being) loved, loved,* having been loved. 

Rem. 1. — The form called the past participle may have been once the 
passive participle, having the same form. (See Rem. on the auxiliary 
Have, p. 74.) If so, it has now wholly lost its original signification, 
and, strictly speaking, has lost its character as a participle. It never 
partakes of the properties of the adjective: it never is used to limit 
a noun like that part of speech ; it. is never used alone in participial con- 
structions, that is, where the participle, with the words depending upon it, 
takes the place of a subordinate proposition ; it is always found in the 
predicate, either of complete or abridged propositions, and is connected 
with some form of have, as, have loved, had loved, having loved ; it has an 
active signification, and always denotes a past, completed act, and belongs 
as well to intransitive as to transitive verbs. 

Rem. 2. — The passive participle of the same form, on the contrary, is 
limited to transitive verbs, has always a passive signification, may denote 
as well present as past time ; it may have the participial construction, or, 
with the copula, may form the passive verb in all the modes and tenses. 

* The passive participle does not necessarily denote past rime. Of itself, it sini- 
pl;- denotes the reception of an act, complete or incomplete. The time depends upon 
ihM of the verb with which it is associated. 



ETYMOLOGY PARTICIPLES. 61 

Rem. 3. — Participles, in their appropriate use, take the place of depend- 
ent propositions, and consequently represent time in the same manner as 
the propositions from which they are derived. 

As the verb of the dependent clause dates from the time expressed hy 
the principal verb, and not from that of the speaker, the participle may be 
present with a past, present, or future act ; as, " 1 saw a man walking ; " 
" I see a man walking ; " " I shall see a man walking." So, again, tho 
participle may denote a past act, completed at the time of a past, present, 
or future act ; as, " Having ploughed his field, the farmer sowed, sows, will 
sow the seed." 

The present active participle denotes an action or state 
present, and in progress at the time represented by the prin- 
cipal verb ; as, " We find, found, or shall find him sitting 
in a chair." 

Rem. 1. — This participle always ends in ing ; it has an active significa- 
tion, and may be used in abridging propositions; as, " I saw a man walk- 
ing in the meadow." It may be used wholly as an adjective; it is then 
placed before the noun ; as, " The roaring billows." When thus used, it 
L> called a participial adjective. It may be used with the copula in the 
progressive form of the predicate; as, "I am reading." It may be used 
(1.) wholly as a noun, with the preceding, and of following ; as, " The read- 
ing of the law ; " or (2.) in the construction of the noun with the modifica- 
tions of the verb ; as, " The eye is never satisfied with belwlding the stu- 
pendous works of the Creator." 

Rem. 2. — Though this participle is usually active, it sometimes has a 
passive signification, especially when an object is undergoing a progressive 
change ; as, " The house is building." " New efforts are making for the ex- 
tension of this trade." — Webster. "This new tragedy was acting." — 
Everett. Recent writers of some distinction have adopted the forms, " The 
nouse is being built." " Preparations are being made." It is not the prov- 
hiee'of the grammarian to dictate as to questions of usage, but to admit 
and explain whatever good, national, and reputable usage sanctions. 
"When subjected to these tests, it must be said of such forms, that they 
are by no means adopted by the best writers as good English, and they 
are of too recent origin to be regarded as idioms of the language. 

The present passive participle denotes the reception of an 
act, at the time represented by the principal verb ; as, " He 
lives, lived, will live, loved by all." 

Rem. 1. — This participle may be used as an adjective, or with the cop- 
ula, to form the passive verb ; as, " A refined taste is possessed only by the 
cultivated." When preceded by being, it may be used as a noun ; as, " By 
being involved in one wrong act, he was soon lost to all the appeals of his 
friends," 

. i 

The perfect active participle denotes an action or stato 
completed at the time represented by the principal verb : as, 
11 Having finished his speech, he sat down." 

The perfect passive participle denotes the reception cf an 
act, past and completed, at the time represented by the pnn- 
6 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cipal verb ; as, " Having been driven from home, he enlisted 
in the army." 

Rem. — The perfect participles are never used like the present, with 
the copula, to form the predicate. They may be used as verbal nouns ; a* 
" He was accused of having obtained goods on false pretences." 

The action or state expressed by the participle mi y be 
either predicated or assumed ; as, " The horse is running 
through the street ; " " The horse running through the 
street." 

Rem. 1, —The participle, when predicated, constitutes, with the copula, 
or auxiliary have, a form of the verb. The present participle is used in the 
progressive form or imperfect tenses ; the past in the complete form, or 
perfect ; the passive, in the passive form; as, "The farmer was plough- 
ing his field. " The farmer had ploughed his field.'* " The field was 
ploughed by the farmer." 

Rem. 2. -— The participle, when assumed, is equivalent to a subordinate 
clause ; as, " The boat which sails on yonder lake is propelled by steam" 
= The boat sailing on yonder lake is propelled by steam. 

EXERCISES. 

Give the present participle of the following verbs : — 

Find, rely, honor, obey, refuse, visit, paper, paint, exercise, study, parse, * 
construe, join, mature, 'plan, inquire, cultivate. The past participle of 
the following verbs : Plant, ride, paint, suffer, hope, retreat, grow, mind, en- 
dow, resemble, suppose. The perfect participle of the following : Bind, 
loose, hang, perfume, make, gain, lay, come, sit, dream, wind, imagine, 
hinder, assist, arrive, release, take, place, sing. 

Give the present, past, and perfect participles of the following transitive 
verbs : — 

Trill, fill, heat, cool, weary, excite, exhaust, enchant, enjoy, dissipate, 
remember, write, learn, ventilate. 

Change the participles in the last examples to the corresponding passive 
participles. 

Mention any action of 'the following objects ; first predicate the act, then 
assiune it : — 

Goldfish, carrier dove, chicken, peacock, horse, lamb, rabbit, squirrel, 
partridge, hen, camel, man, woodcock, mirrors, chairs, swallow, scholars, 
hopes, dreams. 

Use any of the above participles with is, and write an appropriate sub- 
ject, thus : The singer is trilling his note. 

Correct the following examples in all respects, not forgetting any srror 
expressed or implied in the thought ; — 

Ella went to my house yesterday and i and her sit by the window and 
see how the sun drawed water from my father's mill-poncl. 
abei said how last evenin he see a star fall jest over his uncle Calebs bain. 



ETYMOLOGY TENSE. 63 

peter says how his father thinks the gography hadn't ought to say that the 
airth turns over on its exle coz we should all fall of when we get on 'tother 
side. 

How many errors have you heard in the school room to-day ? How many 
hire a you corrected? How many of them are you sure you shall hereafter* 
avoid t 

TENSE. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

As I look out of the window, I see the rain falling : how can I so speak 
as to show that it falls now ? Ans. By saying, " It rains" But suppose 
I should wait till the next day, and then speak of the same thing as having 
happened the day before, what should I say ? Ans. "It rained" What 
word has been changed ? Why was it altered ? If I felt assured that rain 
would fail to-morrow, what should I say in speaking of it before it hap- 
pened ? Ans. "It will rain" What word has been added to the word 
raint Why was it added ? Then we can speak of a tiling when it hapr 
pens, after it happens, or before it happens. How many diifereut times 
are shown by the words rains, rained, and will rain t Ans. Three. Which 
one shows that the raining and speaking both happened together ? Which 
shows that the raining happened before the speaking ? Which shows that 
the ra" - was to happen after the speaking ? If any thing happens be- 
fore w ak of it, we say it is past, or it happened in past time. When 
any thi is to happen after we speak of it, we say, it is future, or 
it will take place in future time. Then we can speak of a thing as taking 
place in present time, past time, or future time. 

Tell the time represented in the following examples : — 

We sing. They run. He will ride. I act. John came. You will 
study. David was injured. He will walk. 

A farmer commences ploughing his field at six o'clock in the morning, 
and continues till six in the afternoon, when he finishes his work. How 
long is the act in progress ? A?is. Twelve hours. When did it begin ? 
When end ? Mention any hour when it was in progress. Mention any hour 
before or after it was in progress. Then the act of ploughing had a beginning, 
a. progress, and an end. Now, suppose I wish to speak of the ploughing 
indefinitely, as we did of the rain, without reference to the beginning, prog- 
ress, or end ; how should I put it in present, past, or future time ? Ans. 
By saying, The farmer ploughs, ploughed, or will plough. But suppose I 
see the act in progress, and I wish to speak of it as actually now taking 
place, without reference to its beginning or end ; how shall I speak ? Ans. 
By saying, He is ploughing. How can I show the same thing in past or 
future time ? Ans. By saying, He was ploughing, he will be ploughing. 
Suppose, now, I should see ^him at six o'clock in the afternoon, just 
as he had finished his work, and I wish to speak, not of the beginning or 
progress of the work, but of the end or completion of it ; how can I rep- 
resent this completion in present time ? Ans. By saying, The farmer has 
ploughed his field. Will you put it in past time ? in future time ? A?is. 
He had ploughed, he will have ploughed his field. Then, if we speak of 
an act without reference to its progress or end, we have one form of the 
verb. What is the past, present, and future of it ? Ans. 
Preseyit. . The farmer ploughs. 
Past. . . The farmer ploughed. 
Future. . The farmer will plough. 

How can I so speak as to put the unfinished or progressing act in th« 
present r the past ? the future ? 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

By saying, — 

Present. . The farmer is ploughing. 

Past. . . The farmer was ploughing. 

Future. . The farmer will be ploughing. 
How can I so speak as to put the end or completion of the .act in the 
present ? the past ? the future ? 
By saying, — 

Present. . The farmer has ploughed. 

Past. . . The farmer had ploughed. 

Future. . The farmer will have ploughed. 
How many different times do we refer all actions to ? Ans. Three 
The present, the past, the future. How many different states of the act can 
we show ? Ans. Three. The act in progress, without reference to the 
end of it ; the end, without reference to beginning or progress of it ; and the 
simple act, without reference to either. What is the time of the following 
acts ? The wind blows. The dog barked. The trees have bent. The grass 
will grow. The fire will have burned. The lesson ends. — The state of 
the following ? The bell is ringing. The mail has arrived. The birds had 
sung. The leaves fail. The fishes will be swimming. — Now give the time 
and state of each. 

Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 

Rem. 1. — Although tense properly denotes the time of an action or 
event, the tense form of the verb is made also to denote the state of an 
act. If an act is spoken of without reference to its progress or completion, 
we have the simple or indefinite present, past, or future ; as, I love, I loved, I 
shall love. But if a. progressive and unfinished state of the act is to be repre- 
sented, we have another form for the present, past, and future ; as, I am 
writing, I was writing, I shall be writing. If, again, we wish to represent 
the finished or completed state of an indefinite act, we have still another 
form for the present, past, and future ; as, I have loved, I had loved, I shall 
have loved. If we wish to represent the finished or completed state of a 
progressive act, we have yet another form ; as, I have been writing, I had 
been writing, I shall have been icriting. If we wish to make the simple 
form emphatic, we have still another ; as, I do love, I did love, for the pres- 
ent and past. If we wish to show that the subject is receiving or suffering 
an act in present, past, or future time, we have still another form ; as, I 
am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved. 

Rem. 2. — Tense does not mean the time which elapses from the begin- 
ning to the end of an act, that is, the duration of an act. But it refers 
either to the present, to an indefinite period antecedent to the present, or 
to an indefinite period subsequent to the present. The present, strictly 
speaking, has no length ; it is the point where the past and future meet. 
But for the purposes of language, any portion, as a day, a month, a year, 
a century, may be taken as the present, and all other time as past or 
future. The present progressive form is, however, always the moment of 
speaking. 

The present is the point or period of time assumed by the speaker or wri- 
ter, and is the epoch to which all events are referred*. "Whatever occurs 
in it, whether before or after the precise moment of speaking, is present ; 
whatever occurs out of it is either past or future. 

There are three divisions of time — the past, the presen 
and the future. 

Rem. — Were it not necessary' to make other distinctions in time based ob 
subdivisions of these three> there would be but three tense forms, the prs»* 



ETYMOLOGY — TENS2. 65 

exit, the past, and the future. But it is often required to give to an event 
a double reference : (1.) to the time of speaking, and (2.) to a given point 
or portion of the present, past, or future. 

Tenses which require this second point of reference are called relative 
tenses ; while those which have only a single reference to the speaker 
are called absolute tenses. 

Each division has two tenses — an absolute and a relative. 
There are, therefore, six tenses — three absolute and three 
relative ; as, (absolute,) " I write" " I wrote" " I shall 
write ; " (relative,) " I have written" (some time ,to-day or 
this year,) " I had written" (before the boat sailed,) " I 
shall have written" (at noon.) 

Rem. 1. — The absolute tenses take their name from the division of time 
to which they belong. Thus we have the present tense, the past tense, 
the future tense. The relative tenses affix to the name of the tense the 
word perfect. Thus we have the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

Rem. 2. — To these six tenses may be added, with propriety, three 
others, called the present imperfect, past imperfect, and future imper- 
fect ; as, "I am 'writing ; " " I was writing ;" " I shall be writing" These 
forms are usually relative tenses ; as, " I am writing while you are read- 
ing ; " "I was writing when the coach arrived ; " "1 shall be writ-big when 
you return." These are, however, called the progressive form of the verb } 
and may be used even in the perfect tenses, to show that a progressive act 
is completed ; as, " I have been writing," (but I am not now ;) " I had been 
writing," (but I was not at the past time referred to ;) if I shall have been 
writing," (but not at the future time referred to.) 

The tenses are — the present, the present perfect ; the 
the past, the past perfect ; \he future^ the future perfect. 

The present tense represents what takes place in present 
time ; as, " I see ; " " I am seeing; " " I do see ; " " I am seen" 

Rem. 1. — By present time is meant the present of the speaker or writer c 
The present of Vne hearer is the same as that of the speaker ; but that of 
the reader is not the same as that of the writer. 

Rem. 2. — This tense, in the common form, is used to denote a general 
truth, or what is customary ; as, " The boy attends school ; " " Vice pro- 
duces misery ; " " Truth is powerful." In the progressive form, it ex- 
presses what is now actually taking place ; as, " He is writing." Hark the 
difference between " He sings," that is, " He is a singer," (but is not sing- 
ing now,) and " He is singing." 

Rem. 3. — The present is often used for other tenses. (1.) It is used 
for the past in animated narratives, where the writer or speaker seems 
transported to the scene which he describes ; as, " He seizes his musket, 
approaches the monster, and toys him upon the ground." (2.) It is used 
for the present perfect in speaking of authors long since dead, when their 
wri tings are referred to ; as, " Matthew traces the descent of Joseph ; Luke 
traces that, of Mary." (3.) It is used for the future after relative po'o- 
nouns, and ^n? snbo dinate connectives, till, until, as soon as, when, before, 

6* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tf , as, " We will paj him when he comes" " He will devour every insect 
which comes in his way." 

The present perfect tense represents a past event com- 
pleted in present time ; as, " I have seen ; " " I have been 
seeing ; " "I have been seen" 

Rem. 1. — - Whenever the attention is drawn to the completion of an act, 
the question of time refers not to the entire act, but to the end of it. If 
-the completion takes place in a portion of time which the speaker as- 
sumes as present, however long that portion may be, or however remote 
the time of the completion may be from the moment of speaking, the 
tense is the present perfect ; as, "I have written a letter this year. ' The 
letter might have been finished on the first of January, but the mention of 
it might have been made on the last of the following December. But 
should one moment intervene between the portion assumed as present (on*. 
year in the above example) and the portion in which the act took place, 
the past must be used if we simply refer to the act, or the past perfect if 
we refer to the completion of the act. 

Rem. 2. — This tense, like the present, is used for other tenses ; as, 
" Shakspeare has excelled all other dramatists." " When I have finished 
my task, I shall return." 

The past tense represents what took place in time wholly 
:past ; as, " I saw." u I was seeing." " I was seen." 

Rem. 1. — - The past and the present perfect may both refer to one and 
the same act. If the speaker refers to an act indefinitely, that is, without 
Regard to its progress or completion, and places it in the past, beyond any 
^portion of what he assumes as present, he must use the past tense ; as, 
rl wrote this forenoon;" the afternoon being assumed as present. "I 
'have written (the same act) to-day; " the whole day being assumed as 
Resent, and the completion (how it may have b^en with the beginning is 
not material) has taken place in that present. 

Rem. 2. — The past tense, common form, is to past time what the 
^present, common form, is to present time. It refers to an act indefinitely. 
It denotes, like the present, what is customary ; as, " He attended school 
constantly." But in the progressive form it denotes a definite act in 
past time, but not completed ; as, " He was writing when I came." 

The past perfect represents a past event completed in time 
'wholly past ; as, " I had seen." " I had teen seeing." " I 
had been seen." 

Rem. — The present perfect, the past, and the past perfect may each re- 
fer to the same act. Suppose a person to write a letter on Monday ; he 
speaks of it on Wednesday, assuming Wednesday alone as the present. 
He says, (referring to the act absolutely and indefinitely,) "I wrote a let- 
ter." 'But while he was writing the mail arrived ; he now says, (referring 
definitely and relatively to the act unfinished, but in progress,) "I was 
writing a letter when the mail arrived." Again : in. speaking of the same 
act, he says, (referring definitely and relatively to the completion of the 
act,) " I had written a letter before the mail left ; " or he may say, (referring 
definitely and relatively both to the progress and completion of the act,) "I 
had been writing a letter." These forms are used, first, because the time. 
Was wholly past, including no part of Wednesday ; secondly, because a» 



ETYMOLOGY TENSES. 67 

ndefhiite absolute act in past time requires the simple past, wrote ; a deft 
nite relative and progressive art in past time requires the pa#* pro 
gressive form, was writing; while a completed relative act in past time 
requires the past perfect, had written, and a completed progressive past 
act requires the past perfect progressive, had been writing. Now, let the 
speaker assume, not Wednesday, (though that be the day of speaking, as 
before,) but the whole week, as the present; he cannot say, "I am writ' 
ing," for the act. is not now going on ; he cannot say, " I wrote," for the 
act is included in the time assumed as present, i. e., the time is not wh( Uy 
past. But he can say, (referring to the completion of the act in the as- 
sumed present,) " I have written a letter," (this week ;) or, (referring both 
to the progress and completion of the act,) " I hare been writing a letter." 
(this week.*) These forms are used, first, because the time (one week) is 
not wholly past, and secondly, because the nature of the act, as before, 
requires them. 

The future unse represents what will take place in future 
time ; as, " I shall see" " I shall he seeing," " I shall be 
seen." 

Rem. — The future, like the simple present or past, is used to denote 
a future custom ; as, " Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judah shall not 
vex Ephraim." " The lion shall eat straw like the ox." 

The future perfect tense represents an event as com- 
pleted in future time ; as, " I shall have seen." " I shaL 
have been seeing." " I shall have been seen." 



TENSES IN ALL THE MODES. 

The subjunctive mode has six tenses — the same as the 
indicative. 

The potential mode has four tenses — the present, present 
perfect, past, and past perfect. 

The infinitive has tivo tenses — the present and perfect. 

The imperative has only one tense — the present. 

Rem. 1. — Tense, in the subjunctive mode, does not usually mark time 
with the same exactness as in the indicative. 

(1.) In conditional clause*, if the thins; spoken of denotes something actual, or ta- 
ken as actual, the tense form usually denotes the true time ; as, " If it rained, I did 
not know it." But if it. refers to something merely hypothetical or supposed, the 
nast tense represents present time, and the past perfect, past time; as, "If [ trera 
froing now, (hut I cannot,) I should ride." " If I had had an opportunity yesterday, 
(but I had none,) I should have spoken to him." 

* To the Teacher. — In drilling pupils on tense, it is important, first, to give 
a clear idea of what is assumed as present. It is not always expressed as above 
(Wednesday, a week,) but is more frequently assumed without notice, mereiy implied , 
as, " He has writt ??-" In the second place, the nature or state of the act as indefinite 
pragres*w4, compl tttt, or progressive completed, should be fully exhibited. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(S.) The verb to he has a distinct form for the past tense used hypotheticaiiy, and 
denoting present time j as, " If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." - 

(3.) We*-e in this use cannot stand for would be, or would kavebeen. although in oth- 
er uses it may ; as, " It were an impossibility to raise the requisite sum." Had, in 
like manner, is used for would or would have : as, " I had rather be a dog, and bay the 
moon, than such a Roman." " It had been better for him if he had pursued the op- 
posite course." 

Rem. 2. — The tenses in the potential mode have by no means the 
signification which their names denote. 

(1.) The present denotes present possibility, permission, ability, or necessity to per- 
form an act sometimes present, and sometimes future ; as, "We may (now) go (to- 
morrow.)" " You can (now) write (now.)" u He must (now) leave," (7iow, to-mor- 
row, next week.) 

(2.) The present perfect generally denotes a present possibility, necessity, &c, that a 
past act was performed ; as, " I mist have written " = It is now undeniable that I 
wrote (yesterday.) 

(3.) The past denotes (a.) a past possibility, &-c, to perform an act ; as, " Can you 
write?" " I could write yesterday." " He would often sit the entire evening with- 
out uttering a word." Would, and might are now seldom, if ever, used to denote 
past time, (b.) It denotes the present possibility, &cc, when followed by a conditional 
clause ; as, " I might or could go (now) if I would." " I should or wouU go (now) if I 
could." (c.) It denotes a. future possibility, &c. ; as, " I shall not go ; but if I should 
go, (hereafter,) I could (hereafter) walk, (d.) It denotes a universal duty without 
reference to time ; as, " Children should obey their parents." 

(4.) .The past perfect denotes usually a past possibility, See, but by no means a past 
completed act, as in the indicative, thus : " I could have assisted you (yesterday) if 
you had desired it " = 1 was able to assist you. 

Rem. 3. — The infinitive mode has but two tenses, the present and per 
feet. They denote, the former an indefinite or progressive, and the latter 
a completed state of the act; as, " To write." " To be writing." " To 
have written. 1 ''' " To have been writing." 

(I.) The infinitive, like the participle- may be connected with any mode or tense of 
the principal verb. 

(2.) The present infinitive denotes a time present with that of the principal verb, 
and not necessarily present with the speaker; as, " I intend to write." "I intended 
tc write." " I had intended to wriu." " I shall begin to write." 

(3.) The perfect denotes a past act completed at the time denoted by 'the principal 
verb ; as, " She is said to have sung." " She was thought to have written." " She 
will be knoicn to have done it." 

Rem. 4. — The imperative has only the present tense, which denotes the 
time of giving a command ; the time of its performance is future. 



EXERCISES. 

Tell the tenses of the following verbs : — 

Did yon hear the lecture ? He listened earnestly. I hope to find the 
study interesting. It will not rain. He had intended to go. I have heard 
the Irish orator. He saw the constellation of the Southern Cross. Is he 
confident of success ? He will have learned his lesson by the time we wish 
to leave. I shall have finished my work when Sarah comes. The chil^ 
cried. Was the view pleasant ? Is he intelligent ? Are the notes of the 
nightingale sad ? Had she read the book ? She is loved by all. The hills 
were covered with snow. 

Tell the tenses of the following verbs ; also which denote the reception 



ETYMOLOGY — FORMS OF THE VERBS. 69 

if an act, which the progress, tchich the completion of an oct y and 
which i n i s definite act : — 

The]- listed in Boston. Is he planting the seed 5 Has Frank 

been drawing f She [bund her lost treasure. I shall be allowed to go. 
When will she go to ride ? Have they been to the concert ? He 3ings. 
He is teaching. Happiness will be her portion. Sorrow is the common - 
lot. Have you been taught to sew ? Had he heard the good news ? 1 
wish to go. I will not be denied. He shall not forget the penalty. Flow- 
ers bloom. Stars fade. They will have gone when 'you come. He tore 
the book. You saw the bright star. When will you go ? What shall 1 
do ? William has gained the prize. Have you been to Europe ? She 
wrires easily. He has been learning to skate. He tells me pleasant sto- 
ries. She Will always do right. He did right. He loves the right. The 
clock has struck. He was never known to tell a lie. He had been pro- 
moted. She is contented. You do not think so. You will learn to know 
her better. It shall not be. He is deceived. He has fallen from the 
tree. He broke his arm. He ran away. He was carrying the package. 
She had been home. 



FORMS OF THE VERB. 

Transitive verbs may have four forms — the common, the 
emphatic, the progressive, and the passive ; as, " I love" 
" I do love." " I am loving." " I am loved" 

Rem. — The emphatic form is confined to the present and past indica- 
tive, and the present imperative. The other forms are extended through 
all the modes and tenses. 

Intransitive verbs may have three forms — the common, 
the emphatic, and the progressive ; as, " I sit" " I do sit." 
" I am sitting." 

The common form represents an act indefinitely, as a cus- 
tom, or as completed without reference to its progress ; as, 
4 1 love." " I loved." " I shall love." " I have loved." 

Rem. — The variations of this form, in the second and third persons, 
as seen in the terminations est and eth, belong to what is called the solemn 
style. They are found in the Scriptures, in forms of prayer, and in various 
sacred books. 

The emphatic form represents an act with emphasis ; as 

" i do write." " I did write." 

Rem. — This form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without 
emphasis ; as, " Do you write? " "Hid you write? " " I do net write." 

The progressive form represents the progress of an un- 
finished act ; as, " 1 am writing." 

r Rem. — In the perfect tenses, it represents the completion of a nrcgrea 
sive act, as, " I have been writing^" " I shall have been ivriting 



*0 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The passive form represents the reception of an act ; as ; 
" I am loved" " I was loved" " I shall he loved." 

Rem. 1. — The perfect tenses of this form are used when we wish to 
represent the completion of a passive state ; as, " I have been honored" 
" I had been honored." " I shall have been honored." 

Rem. 2. — The following table gives the forms for each divison of time 
with a description of the state of the act : — 



FORMS FOR EACH DIVISION OF TIME. 







L Present. 






Time. 


Act. 


Example. 


1. 


Present. 


Indefinite. 


He writes. 


2. 


u 


Progressive incomplete. 


Hew writing; 


3. 


ft 


Complete. 


He has written. 


4. 


M 


Progressive complete. 


He has been writing. 


5. 


K 


Indefinite emphatic. 


He does rorite. 


6. 


« 


Indefinite received.* 


The letter is written. 


7. 


« 


Progressive received.* 


The house is building'. 


e. 


it 


Complete received.* 

II Past. 


The letter has been written. 


i. 


Past 


Indefinite. 


He 'wrote. 


2. 


(c 


Progressive incomplete. 


He was writing'. 


3. 


« 


Complete. 


He had written. 


4. 


u 


Progressive complete. 


He had been writing. 


5. 


K 


Indefinite emphatic. 


He did write. 


6. 


ft 


Indefinite received.* 


The letter was written. 


7. 


M 


Progressive received.* 


The house was building. 


8. 


C« 


Complete received.* 

III. Future 


The letter had been written. 


1. 


Future, 


Indefinite. 


He will write. 


2. 


<c 


Progressive incomplete. 


He will be writing. 


3. 


u 


Complete. 


He will have written. 


4. 


« 


Progressive complete. 


He will have been writing. 


5. 


« 


Indefinite received.* 


The letter will be written. 


6. 


«« 


Progressive received.* 


The house will be building. 


7. 


(C 


Complete received.* 


The letter will have been wt 



Each part of the various forms contributes a share towards the general 
meaning of the tense, and every compound tense should be analyzed. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

We are marching Are is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, 

and asserts a thing as actual ; marching is a 
present participle, denoting a progressive act ; 
hence are marching is the present tense, indica- 
tive mode, progressive form. 

X do write Do is an auxiliary verb, denotes the present tense, 

asserts a thing as actual, and imparts emphasis ; 
•write denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence 
do write is the present indie? ■**> "^ra^ati* 
form. 



* By the subject. 



ETYMOLOGY AUXILIARIES. 71 

lie xcill sing Will is an auxiliary verb, denotes future time- 

(simply predicts,) and asserts a thing as i.ctual ; 
sing denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence 
will sing is in the future tense, indicative mode. 

He has conquered Has is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, 

is a sign of completed action, and asserts a thing 
as actual ; conquered is the past participle of 
conquer, denoting a completed or perfect act ; 
hence has conquered is the present perfect in- 
dicative. 

1 had been writing Had is an auxiliary verb, denotes past time, is a 

sign of completion", and with been asserts a thing 
as actual ; been is the past participle of the aux- 
iliary to be, and is used to denote completion ; 
writing is the present participle of write, formed 
by adding ing, (Rule II. , p. 15,) and denotes a 
progressive act ; hence had been writing is the 
past perfect progressive indicative. 

They will have fought. , . Will is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes future time, 
(simply predicts,) and asserts a thing as actual ; 
have is a sign of completion ; hence will have 
is the sign of future completion ; fought is the 
past participle of fight; it denotes completion; 
hence will have fought is the future perfect 
tense indicative. 

I may read May is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes present time, 

asserts a thing as imagined or thought of, (not 
as actual,) and gives permission ; read denotes 
an indefinite act ; hence may read is the pres 
ent potential common form. 

If he is detained is is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, and 

of itself asserts a thing as actual, but under the 
influence of if asserts a thing as doubtful and 
conditional ; detained is a passive participle, 
denoting the reception of an act ; hence is de- 
tained is the present passive subjunctive. 



• EXERCISE. 

In the same maimer analyze the following examples : — 
The tempest has passed. The sun was rising. I shall be satisfied. 
The sailor would have been discharged, if he had not given a satisfactory 
excuse. The boys were anxious to go. The boy hoped to have finished 
the work before the storm approached. Go to the prison. Write an an- 
swer. It may have been delayed. If you should write a correct lesson, 
you would be commended. 

Write three examples of the emphatic indicative past ; three of the pro* 
gressive past perfect ; four of the progressive potential past perfect; aha 
any other which your teacher may give. 

Select from your Reader one example of each tense, and analyze it. 

Tell the mode, tense, and form of each of the following verbs: — 

Shepherd, lead on. Sweet is the breath of morn. These are thy works. 

He will be coming. Silence filled the courts of heaven. A little new 

born spirit knelt before the Eternal Throne. Thus far shalt thou g«* 

He leads them forth through golden portals. Truths crushed to eartk, 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ghal? zjse again Do thou in secret pray ? When the eye saw him, then 
it blessed him. If thy brother die, he shall live again. It is sown a nat 
ural body, it is raised a spiritual body. By that time he will have beei 
reaping his Ttlieat Books were ready comrades, whom he could no- 
tire. Thou must go to rest. He sunk to repose where the red heathi 
are blended. He has been studying his lesson. She had seen better days 
I would have blessed the strand. Be exalted, ye valleys. I will love the sea 
because it is his grave. Pale mourned the lily where the rose had died 
Suffer little children to come unto me. He would hardly have known him 
She was sitting by the side of her friend. They were walking on the beach 
The sun will have set when I reach home If he will do well, he shall b 
rewarded. 

Cowed the following in all respects : — 

Hull april first 18 hundred and 52 my deer ant i set down to inform you 
That i am usually well i should admire to see you we was all so glad when 
You come to our House last febuary we was'nt a looking for you but in 
You come all of A sudden i go to school now and study my rethmetic and 
Grammar book i think i lern my grammer considerable Well but the mas- 
ter says how i dont rite Grammatical i shall Be twelve Year old co 
me June i cant rite no more for i haint no more time to — your lovin Nef- 
u lemuel 



AUXILIARIES. 

Auxiliary verbs are those which are used in conjugating 
other verbs. They are, — 

must. 



Pres. 


Do, 


be, 


have, 


shall, 


will, 


may, 


can, 


Fast. 


Did, 


was, 


had, 


should, 


would, 


might, 


could, 



Rem. 1. — Do, be, have, and will (when it means to will, or to leave 
property by a will) are also used as principal verbs. 

Rem. 2. — The auxiliary verbs are used to form the modes and tense? 
of other verbs, and to give peculiar shades of meaning to the forms in 
which thev are used. In the early stages of the language, these verbs were 
undoubtedly used as principal verbs followed by the infinitive of what now 
is called the principal verb; as, may (to) go; can (to) read; must (to) 
sing. The to was at length dropped, as it is in case of the infinitives fol- 
lowing bid, dare, feel, see, &c. ; and finally, the infinitive came to be re- 
garded as the principal verb, and that on which it depended became its 
auxiliary. 

Rem. 3. — The auxiliaries should be regarded merely as form-words, or 
words used to form the tenses, and to show relations of time and mode, as 
the preposition is used to show relations of time, place, origin, cause^ man- 
tier, "property, material, &c. In fact, all words used to show a relation, of 
whatever nature, are a species of auxiliary. Prepositions aid in convert- 
ing nouns into an adjective or adverbial use, thus : " She plays with ease " 
= plays easily. " The oak of America " = The American oak. The rel- 
ative pronoun, or the conjunctive .adverb, is an auxiliary used to form an 
adjective or an adverb out of a sentence ; thus : " The rain washed away 
the embankment," is an independent sentence ; but in the sentence, ' The 
rain which (\. e., the rain) washed away the embankment, has done much 
damage elsewhere ; " the former sentence, by the aid of ichich, has been 
converted into an adjective, used to modify rain. So if we take the two 
sentences, " The sun rose ; " " The cars left," we may convert the for 
rtifer into an adverb by the auxiliary when, thus : M V/hen the sun ro&t, 



ETYMOLOGY- FORMATION OF TENSES. 



73 



the cars left." In the progress of language, these auxiliaries have in- 
creased, and in the same ratio, the inflection of the principal word Iras 
diminished. An exact and familiar acquaintance with their various usea 
is essential to a correct knowledge of language. 

Rem. 4. — The auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses ; the jrrcsent 
and the past, except must, which has no variation. They may be thus rep- 
resented : — 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 



Present. 



Past. < 





Singular. 






Plural 




1st. Per. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 


1st Ter. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 


/ 


Thou ■ 


He 


We 


You 


They. 


' Am 


art 


is 


are 


are 


are 


Do 


dost 


does 


do 


do 


do 


Have 


hast 


has 


have 


have 


have 


Will 


wilt 


will 


will 


will 


will 


Shall 


shalt 


shall 


shall 


shall 


shall 


May 


mayst 


may 


may 


may 


may 


Can 


canst 


can 


can 


can 


can 


k Must 


must 


must 


must 


must 


must 


f Was 


wast 


was 


were 


were 


were 


Did 


didst 


did 


did 


did 


did 


Had 


hadst 


had 


had 


had 


had 


Would 


wouldst 


would 


would 


would 


would 


Should 


shouldst 


should 


should 


should 


should 


Might 


mightst 


might 


might 


might 


might 


k Could 


' couldst 


could 


could 


could 


could 



FORMATION OF TENSES — USES OF THE AUXILIARIES. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

(1.) The common form . . is the first or sample form of the verb ; as, love, 
lovest, loves. 

(2.) The emphatic form . . prefixes do, dost, does, to the first form of the 
verb ; as, do love, dost love, does love. 

(3.) The progressive form . prefixes is, ayn, art, are, to the present partici- 
ple of the verb ; as, is writing, am writing, art 
writing. 

(4.) The passive form . . . prefixes is, am, art, are, to the passive* partici- 
ple of the verb ; as, is loved, art loved, «; e 
loved. 

Rem. 1. — Do is used primarily for emphasis It is used without emphasis in inter- 
rogative and negative sentences ; as, " Does he write ? " " He does not tell the truth.' 
It takes also at the end of the sentence the place of the principal verb 3 as, " I will 
go if you do " = go. 

KtM. 2. — Be, as an auxiliary, is the pure abstract verb, (Rem. 1, p. 52,) and is used 



The same in form as the past participle, but not in meaning. 
1 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to connect the participle, present or passive with the subject. It gives no shading to 
the meaning of the participle, as it has no meaning to impart. It does what sinipia 
inflection would do if it could be employed. 

Present Perfect Tense, 

(1.) The common form . . prefixes have, hast, has, to the past participle 
of the verb ; as, have loved f hast loved, has 
loved. 

(2.) The progressive form . prefixes have been, hast been, has been, to the 
present participle of the verb ; as, have been 
wilting, hast been writing, has been writing. 

(3.) The passive form . . . prefixes have been, hast been, has been, to the 
passive participle of the verb; as, have been 
loved, hast been loved, has been loved. 

Rem. — Have probably once conveyed the idea of possession, governing an object 
wnich was limited by a passive participle ; as, " He has treasures discovered," or, 
u He has (or possesses) discovered treasures." It has now lost all idea of possession, 
and is, in this use, a simple auxiliary ; the participle, also, having been changed from 
a passive, to an active £ 'unification ; as, " He has discovered valuable treasures.'* 



Past Tense. 

(1.) The common form . . is the second form of the verb ; as, loved, 
lovedst. 

(2.) The emphatic form . . prefixes did, didst, to the first form of the 
verb ; as, did love, didst love. 

(3.) The pn'ogressive form . prefixes was, wast, were, to the present partici- 
ple of the verb ; as, was writing, wast writing, 
were writing. 

(4.) The passive form * . . prefixes ivas, wast, were to the passive parti- 
ple of ihe verb ; as, was loved, wast loved, were 
loved. 

Rem. — Did is the past of do, and has the same uses. The same may be said of 
was, which is the past of be* 

Past Perfect Tense. 

(1.) The common form . . prefixes had, hadst, to the past participle ; as, 

had loved, hadst loved. 
(2.) The progressive form . prefixes had been, hadst been, to the present 

participle of the verb ; as, had been writing, 

hadst been writing. 
(3.) The passive form . . . prefixes had been, hadst been, to the passive 

participle of the verb ; as, had been loved, hadst 

been loved. 

Rem. — Had is the past of have, and has the same uses as the latter. 



Future Tense. 

(1.) The common form . . prefixes shall, slmlt, will, wilt, to the first fcrrn 
of the verb ; as, shall love, shalt love, will love, 
wilt love. 

(2L) The progressive form . prefixes shall be, shalt be, will be, wilt be, to 
the present participle of the verb ; as, shall b* 



ETYMOLOGY FORMATION OF TENSES- 75 

writing, will be writing, shalt be writing, wnU 
be writing. 
(3) The passive form . . . prefixes shall be, shalt be, will be, wilt be, to the 
passive participle of the verb ; as, shall be loved, 
shalt be loved, will be loved, wilt be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

(1.) TJie common form . . prefixes shall have, shalt have, will have, loilt 
have, to the perfect participle of the verb ; as, 
shall have loved, will Jiave loved, wilt have loved. 

(%,) The progressive form . prefixes shall have been, will have been, shalt 
have been, wilt have been, to the present par- 
ticiple of the verb ; as, shall have been writ- 
ing, wilt have been writing, will have been 
writing. 

(3.) The passive fbrm . . . prefixes shall have been^ will have been, shalt 
have been, wilt have been, to the passive par- 
ticiple of the verb ; as, shall have been loved, 
wilt have been loved, will have been loved. 

Note. — Shall and will are nsed to form the future tenses, and, with have, 
(shall 07' will have,) to form the future perfect, in the indicative and sub- 
junctive modes ; as, I shall or will learn, I shall or will have learned ; if 1 
shall or will learn, if I shall or will have learned. 

Rem. 1. — Shall and will have two significations — a primary or original, and a sec- 
ondary or derived. Shall denotes, primarily, obligation ; as, " You shall do it " == You 
are under obligation to do it ; this obligation may be urged by the will or determination 
of another ; as, " You are under obligation to do it, and I will, or am determined, that 
the obligation shall be discharged ; " that is, '* That you shall do it, is my will." 
Hence shall denotes obligation, and implies determination and resolution at the same 
time. But that which one is obliged to do, whether by necessity or the will of another, 
is not now done ; it is yet to be done ; hence a secondary idea of futurity. 

Rem. 2. — Will denotes, primarily, volition, inclination, purpose, determination : as, 
11 He will go in spite of opposition " :=: He is determined to go. But that which one 
inclines, or wills, or determines to do himself, or to have another do, is not now done ; 
it is yet to be done ; hence will also has a secondary idea of futurity. 

Rem. 3. — In the present use of these auxiliaries both these elements appear. 

(1.) Shall and will denote a present resolution, volition, inclination, determination, 
promise, or purpose, with reference to a future act ; as, " / resolve that he shall write." 
" I will write." 

(2.) They denote simple futurity ; as, " /predict that he will write." " It loillv&'m 
to-morrow." " I shall (contrary to my will) be overtaken." 

Rem. 4. — Besides that of the speaker, two relations or parties are necessarily in- 
volved in both these cases ; the one who resolves or predicts, and the one who acts. 
Two cases may arise. (1.) Both parties may be represented by the saihe person ; as, 
" I resolve or determine that I will write ; " or simply, " I will write." " I predict or be- 
lieve that I shall write ; " or simply, " I shall write." " You resolve that you will write." 
" You believe or predict that you shall write." (2.) Both parties may be represented 
one by one person, and the other by another ; as, " /resolve that you shall write ; " or 
simply, " You shall write." " I predict that you will write ; " or simply, " You will 
write." " You resolve that / shall write ; " " You predict that I shall (not will) 
write." " He resolves that you shall write." " He predicts that you will write." 
In interrogative sentences, the same principles prevail, but the will or opinion of the 
second person is referred to ; as, " Shall he write ? " that is, " Is it your will or res- 
olution that he shall write ? " " Will it rain ? " that is, " Is it your opinion or predic- 
tion that it will rain ? " 

A careful inspection of these and similar examples will justify the following rules • — 

Rule I. When the person who resolves or predicts is not mentioned, the first person 
is always understood in affirmative, and the second in interrogative sentences; as, 
♦♦You shall go." (/will it.) "Shall he go?" (Do you will it?) H It will rain." 
U predict it ) " Will il rain ? " (Do you predict it ?) 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rcjle II. Will should be its r d when the resolution mid the action are attributed to 
the same person, and shall when they are attributed to different persons; "lioill 
gn." (I myself resolve.) "Will you go?" (Do you yourself resolve ?) "He wiU 
go." (He himself resolves.) " He shall go." (I resolve.) " They have determined 
that you shall go." " Shall he go? " (Do you resolve?) 

Rule III. Shall should be used when the prediction and the action are both attributed 
to the same person, or in any case, provided the action be attributed to the first person ; 
and will should be used when the prediction and the action (except in the case of the first 
person) are attributed to different persons ; as, " You will be promoted." (I pre- 
dict it.) " I shall teach, or be a teacher." (I, he, you, or they, predict it.) " Will he 
teach ? " (Do you predict it ?) " Will it rain ? " (Do you think so ?) " It will rain." 
T think so.) 

Note. — These rules embody all the principal uses of shall and wilL But there 
ire some exceptions and anomalous cases, which will easily be recognized. 

In the following sentences, do shall, and will resolve or predict? — 
I will go to the party. You shall not leave the room. It will be a sad 
clay for him. He shall do as I tell him. He will come to see me. I shall 
go to see my sister. I shall see him to-morrow. In the day that 
thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. Thou wilt show me the path of 
life. He will be elected. Perhaps I shall find my book. I will fear no 
evil. I will dwell in the house of my God forever. Shall I go to ride ? 
Will she do it ? In spite of all your objections, I will do it. The sun will 
shine. The clock will strike. Shall you go to the lecture ? When will 
the time come ? Will he do well ? 

Correct the following examples by giving the right use of shall and toill : — 
I will receive a letter when my brother comes. If they make 'the 
changes, I do not think I will like them. Will we have a good time, if we 
go ? Perhaps you shall find the purse. I will be unhappy if you do not 
come. I will be afraid if it is dark. Surely goodness and mercy shall fol- 
low me, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. I resolve that he 
will return with me. I will be obliged to you. I will be punished. What 
sorrow will I have to endure ! The moon shall give her light. Will I 
write ? He is resolved that Mary will go. If we examine the subject, 
we will perceive the error. I will suffer from poverty ; nobody shall help 
me. When shall you go with me ? Where will I leave you ? 



POTENTIAL MODE, 
Present Tense. 

(1.) The common form . . prefixes may, mayst, can, canst, must, to the 
first form of the verb ; as, may love, mayst love, 
can love, canst lore, must love. 

(2.) The progressive forn, . prefixes may be, mayst be, can be, canst be, must 
be, to the present participle of the verb ; as, 
may be writing, mayst be writing, can be writ- 
ing, canst be writing, must be writing. 
Z,) The passive fc^tn . . . prefixes may be, mayst be, can be, ca?ist be, ?nust 
be, to the passive participle of the verb ; as, 
may be loved, mayst be loved, can be loved, 
canst be loved, must be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense, 

(1.) The e:r#%on firm . , prefixes may have, mayst have, can have, canst 
have, must have, to the past participle of the 
verb ; as, may have loved, mayst have loved % 
can hare loved, canst have loved, must kavi 
loved. 



ETYMOLOGY' FORMATION OF TF.NSES. 



77 



(2.) T)ic progressive form prefixes may have been, mayst have been, can 
have been, canst have been, must have been, to 
the present participle of the verb ; as, may 
have been writing* mayst have been writing, can 
have been writing, canst have been writing, must 
have been writing. 
, prefixes may have been, mayst have been, can 
have been, canst have been, must have been, to 
the passive .participle of the verb ; as, may 
have been loved, mayst have been loved, can 
have been loved, canst have been loved, must 
have been i 



(8 ) The passive form 



(1.) The common form 



(2.) The progressive form 



Past Tense. 

prefixes might, mightst, could, couldst, should, 
shouldst, would, wouldst, to the first form of 
the verb; as, might love, mightst love, coidd 
love, couldst love, would love, woiddst love, 
should love, shouldst love. 

prefixes might be, mightst be, could be, couldst 
be, would be, wouldst be, should be, shouldst be, to 
the present participle of the verb ; as, might 
be writing, mightst be writing, could be writing ', 
coiddst be writing, ivould be writing, wouldst be 
writing, should be writing, shoiddst be writing. 
prefixes might be, mightst be, could be, couldst be, 
would be, wouldst be, shoidd be, shouldst be, to 
the passive participle of the verb ; as, might be 
loved, mightst be loved, could be loved, couldst be 
loved, would be loved, wouldst be loved, should 
be loved, shoiddst be loved. 



(1.) The common form . 



(2. ) The progressive form 



(8.) The passive form 



Past Perfect Tense. 

prefixes might have, mightst have, coidd have, 
couldst have, shoidd have, shouldst have, would 
have, woiddst have, to the past participle of the 
verb ; as, might have loved, ?nightst have loved, 
could have loved, couldst have loved, ivould have 
loved, wouldst have loved, shoidd have loved, 
shouldst have loved. 

prefixes might have been, mightst have been, 
could have been, couldst have been, would have 
been,wouldst have been, should have been, shouldst 
have been, to the present participle of the verb 
as, might have been writing, mightst have been 
writing, could have been writing > couldst have 
been writing, should have been writing, shouldst 
have been writing, would have been writing, 
wouldst have been writing. 
prefixes might have been, mightst have been, 
could have been, coiddst have been, would have 
been, wouldst have been, should have been, 
shouldst have been, to the passive participle of 
the verb ; as, might have been loved, mightst 
ha.ve been loved, could have been loved , couldst 
have been loved, would have been loved, wouldst 
have been loved, should have been loved, ihouldst 
heme been loved 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rsm. 1. — May denotes power imparted by others, that is, libeiiy o? 
permission ; can denotes power or ability, belonging to one's self ; must 
denotes necessity. 

Rem. 2. — May sometimes denotes possibility ; as, " It may rain ; " " He 
may have written ; " sometimes a petition ; as, " May it please you." 

PwEM. 3. — In the present perfect these auxiliaries are joined with have ; 
as, " May, can, or must have written ; " and then the entire form denotes 
the present possibility, &c, that a past act was performed ; as, " I may 
have spoken " = It is (now) possible that I spoke (yesterday.) 

Rem. 1. — Should and would have the same general meaning as the 
present tenses shall and will, and in general they are to the past tenses 
what shall and will are to the present or future ; as, " I think I shall write." 
11 I thought I should write." " I think he will go" " I thought he would 
go." (See Rules for the use of shall and will.)' 

Rem. 2. — Might and could also express in past time the same general 
meaning as in the present ; as, " I know I may or can go." " I knew I 
might or could go." 

Rem. 3. — Might, could, should, and would are used in conditional sen- 
tences, might in one clause answering to could in the other, when poioer, 
ability, or inclination is implied ; as, " He might sing, if he could or 
would." So, " He could sing, if he would." " He would sing, if he could." 
Sometimes the conditional clause is omitted. " He might write." " He 
could write." " He would write." In all these examples a present possi- 
bility, liberty, &c, is referred to. When past time is referred to, we use 
the past perfect tense; as, "He might have written, if he would" (have 
written.) 

Rem. 4. — Might, eoidd, would, and should, combined with have, form 
the past perfect tense. It is the past perfect only in form. It is equivalent 
to the past ; as, " He could have written " = He was able to write. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

With the exception of the distinctive form in the present and past, the 
subjunctive mode is the same in form as the indicative or potential, with 
if, unless, though, &c, prefixed ; as, " If I love." "If I may love." 

Imperative Mode. 

The imperative mode has but one tense, the present, which is used gen 
erally without the subject expressed, and in all the four forms of the verb ; 
as, Study ; be thou studying ; be thou loved ; do write. 

Infinitive Mode. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses — the present and the perfect. The 
present is used in the common, the progressive, and the passive form of the 
verb, and is formed by prefixing to to the simple verb for the common 
form, to be to the present participle for the progressive form, and to be to 
the passive participle for the passive form ; as, to write ; to be writing ; 
to be written. 

The perfect is used in the co?n?non, the progressive, and the passive forms 
of the verb, and is formed by prefixing to have to the past participle of 
the verb for the common form, to have been to the present participle for 
the progressive form, and to have been to the passive participle for the pas- 
sive form^ as, to have written ; to hcwe been writiiig • to have been written. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB, ITS NUMBER AND PKRSON. 79 



Participles, 

The present participle is formed by adding ing to tlie first form of the 
rerb, (Rule III. p. 15 ;) as, writing. 

The past participle is formed for regular verbs by adding ed to the sim- 
ple verb, (Rule III. p. 15 ;) as, honored. 

The perfect participle is formed by prefixing having to the past participle 
")f the verb for the common form, having been to the present participle 
for the progressive form, and having been to the passive participle for the 
passive form ; as, having written ; having been writing ; having been written. 



NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE VERB. 

The number and person of the verb are properties which 
show its agreement with the subject. Like the subject, the 
rerb has two numbers and three persons. 

Rem. 1. — The first person singular, and the firsts second, and third 
persons plural, of the present tense indicative, in all verbs, (am, are, icas, 
were, excepted,) are alike. The second person singular is like the first, 
except in the solemn or scriptural style, when it is formed by adding st, or 
sst, to the first person ; as, " Thou hvest me not." The third person sin- 
gular is formed from the first, by adding .9, or es : in the scriptural style it 
ends in eth ; as, " He goeth." Verbs ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
change y into i, and add es, to form the third person singular ; as, try, tries. 

Rem. 2. — By a figure of enallage, the second person plural of the pro- 
noun and verb is substituted, in conversational and familiar style, for 
the second person singular ; as, " Hubert, you are sad " =: Hubert, thou 
art sad 

Rem. 3. — The imperative mode has usually only the second person ; 
as, " Go thou." In some languages, the imperative has also a form for 
the first person plural, and thud person singular and plural A few ex- 
amples seem to occur in English ; as. 4< Rise, tny sons." " Be it decreed." 
Most of these cases, however, can oe explained by supplying an ellipsis ; 
as, " Let thy sons rise." " Let it be decreed." 

EXERCISE. 

Determine the number and person of each of the following subjects, and 
then give the number and person of each of the folloioing verbs : — 

Mary sings. George wall fly his kite. I know it. She would go. Henry 
recites well. Who are they ? The birds picked up the crumbs. Hear the 
rain. When shall you go ? The sun does not shine. The violets bloom. 
Roses will fade. Time flies on. Books are full of instruction. You may 
have your choice. What shall I give her ? Cultivate a love for all that is 
Deautiful. 

CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement of 
its several modes, tenses, voices , nwnbers, and persons 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAH 



Rem. 1. — The only tenses which change their termination are the 
present and past ; as, sit, fittest } sits ; sat, snttest ; tarry, tamest, tames ; 
tamed, taiviedst. All other changes are made by means of auxiliaries. 

Rem. 2. — In adding 5 or es, observe the same rales as in the forma- 
tion of the plural of nouns ; as, play, plays ; fly, flies ; go, goes. So, also, 
observe the rules (p. 15) for the changes of the radical verb ; as, drop, 
dropped, (Rule I. p. 15 ;) reply, replied, (Rule III. p. 15.) 

The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative 
the past indicative, and the past participle. 





EXAMPLES. 




Present 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Explain, 
Rely, 

Write, 
Shine, 
Hurt, 


explained, 

relied, 

wrote, 

shone, 

hurt, 

EXERCISES. 


explained. 

relied. 

written. 

shone. 

hurt. 



Give the principal parts of the following verbs : — 

Sail, smile, see, shut, close, open, burn, glaze, gild, turn, try, reform, 
renew, take, leave, make, build, hope, fold, alter, correct. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE. 

Rote. — Let the pupil study the " Formation of the Tenses,'* ( p. 73,"^ 
as he learns the conjugation of the different modes and tenses. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Singular. 

1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. He is; 



Present Tense. 



Plural. 
We are, 
You are, 

They are 



Present Perfect Tense. 



1. I have been, 
2 Thou hast been, 
3, He has been ; 



Plural 
We have been, 
You have been, 
They have been. 



ETYMOLOGY COI^rUflATION. 8! 



Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, We were f 

2. Thou wast, You were, 
8. He was ; They were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, You had been, 

3. He had been ; They had been. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; They shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Terfce. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been, We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will hi ye been ; They shall or will have been. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be,* We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, You may be, 

3. He may be ; They may be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, We may have been, 

2. Thou n ayst have been. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; They may have been. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plurtd. 

1. I might be, We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, You might be, 

3. He might be ; They might be. 

* Conj igate with each auxiliary, or with all united, thus : I may, can y or must be 



S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Perfect Tense. 



Plural. 

1. I might have been, We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; They might have been, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am, If we are, 

2. If thou art, If you are, 

3. If he is ; If they are. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been, If we have been, 

2. If thou hast been, If you have been, 

3. If he has been ; If they have been. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was, If we were, 

2. If thou wast, If you were, 

3. If he was ; If they were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been, If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, If you had been 5 

3. If he had been ; If they had been. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be, If we shall < r will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, If you shall or will be, 

3. If he shall or will be ; If they shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

\ 1 f I shall or will have been, If we shall or will have been, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been, If you shall or will hsrs been, 

3L If he shall or will have been ; If they shall or will have been. 



* 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. 83 

subjunctive mode. ( Subjunctive form.) 

Note. — Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive has another 
In the present and past, peculiar to itself. 

Present Tense. 

Singular* Plural 

1. If I be, If we be, 

2. If thou be, If you be, 

3. If he be ; If they be. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. If I were, If we were, 

2. If thou wert, If you were, 

3. If he were ; If they were. 



IMPERATIVE MODE, 

Present Tense. 

, Singular. Plural 

Be, or Be thou ; Be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. To be. 

Present Perfect. » To have been. 

PARTICIPLES, 

Present. Being. Past. Been. 

Perfect. Having been. 

Synopsis is a short view of the verb, showing its forms through the 
modes and tenses in a single number and person, thus : In the first per- 
son singular, we have, Ind. Pres. I am ; Pres. Per. I have been ; Past, I 
was ; Past Perf. I had been ; Fut. I shall be ; Fut. Per. I shall have been 
Pot. Pres. I may be ; Pres. Per. I may have been ; Past, I might be ; 
Past Perf. I might have been. Sub. Pres. If I am, &c 

EXERCISE. 

In \ohat mode and tense are the following ? — 

I am. He has been. If I were. You can be. He might be. To have 
been. They were. He will have been. You might be. She had been. 
You will be. To be. I must have been. Thou art. If he be. If you 
are. They might have been. We were. I had been. Thou wast. He is. 

Give a synopsis of to be, in the Ind. second person singular, sec. 
plur., first per. plur., sec. per. plur., third per. plur. Pot. third per. 
6ing., sec. per. plur., third per. plur. Sub. sec. per. sing., sec. per. plur., 
third per. plur., first per. plur. 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB To LOVE, 
ACTIVE VOICE 

INDICATIVE MODE 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I lore, 

2. Thoulovest, 

3. He loves ; 



Plural. 
We lore, 
You love, 
They love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; They have loved. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved ; 



Plural, 
We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 

3. He had loved ; 



Plural 
We had loved, 
You had loved, 
They had loved 



Future Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 
-3. He shall or will love ; 



Plural. 
We shall or will love, 
You shall or will love, 
They shall or will love. 



Future Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved; 



Plural. 
We shall or will have loved, 
You shall or will have loved, 
They shall or will have loved 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 

3. He may love ; 



Plural. 
We may love, 
You may love, 
They may love 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. 



85 



Present Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I may have loved, 

2. Thoumayst have loved, 
8, He may nave loved ; 



Plural 
We may have loved, 
You may have loved. 
They may have loved. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 
1 I might love, 
2. Thou mightst love, 
8. He might love ; 



Plural. 



"We might love, 
You might love, 
They might love. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 
S. He might have loved ; 



Plural 
We might have loved, 
You might have loved, 
They might have loved 



subjunctive mode. (Regular form.) 



Present Tense. 



Singulan 

1. If I love, 

2. If thou lovest, 

3. If he loves ; 



Plural 
If we love, 
If you love, 
If they love 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular Plural 

1. If I have loved, If we have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved ; If they have loved 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 

3. If he loved; 



Plural. 
If we loved, 
If you loved, 
If they loved 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, 

3. If he had loved ; 

Future Tense* 

Singular. 

1. If I shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, 
8. If he shall or will love ; 

3 



Plural 
If we had loved, 
If you had loved, 
If they had loved 



Plural 
If we shall or will love 
If you shall or will love, 
If they shall or will love. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Future Perfect Tense. 



Singular, Plural. 

1. If I shall or will nave loved, If we shall or will have loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved, If you shall or will have loved, 

3. If he shall or will have loved ; If they shall or will have loved. 



subjunctive mode. ( Subjunctive form.* ) 
Present Tense. 

Singular. PluraU 

1. If I love, If we love, 

2. If thou love, If you love, 

3. If he love ; If they love. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Love, or Love thou ; Love, or Love you. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To love* Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I am loved, We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; They are loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; They have been loved. 

* See Rem. 3. page 58, 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. 87 



Past Tense. 

Singular, PluraL 

1. I was loved, We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; They were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. I had been loved, We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; They had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

i I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. I shall or will have been loved, We shall or will have been loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, You shall or will have been loved, 

3. He shall or will have been loved ; They shall or will have been loved 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. I may be loved, We may be loved, 

2. Thoumaystbe loved, You maybe loved, 

3. He may be loved ; They may be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. I may have been loved, We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; They may have been loved. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. I might beloved, We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; They might be loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. I might have been loved, We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; They might havs baen loved. 



OS ENGLISH GBAMMAS. 

subjunctive mode. ( 'Regular form. ) 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am loved, If we are loved, 

2. If thou art loved, If you are loved, 

3. If he is loved ; If they are loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved, If we have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved, If you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved ; If they have been loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wast loved, If you were loved, 
SL If he was loved ; If they were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved. If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved ; If they had been loved. 

Future' Tense. 

Singular. PluraU 

1. If I shall or will be loved, If we shall or will be loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved, If you shall or will be loved, 

3. If he shall or will be loved ; If they shall or will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been loved, If we shall or will have been loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been loved, If you shall or will have been loved. 

3. If he shall or will have been loved ; If they shall or will have been lovea 

subjunctive mode. ( Subjunctive form.) 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved* If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved ; If they be lovei 



ETYWOLjOGY — CONJUGATION. 89 



Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

i. If I were loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular, Plural. 

Be loved, or Be thou loved ; Be loved, or Be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. Past (passive.) Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 



INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the indicative and 
potential modes, by placing the subject after it, or after the 
first auxiliary ; as, Ind. Do I love ? Have I loved ? Did 
I love ? Had I loved ? Shall I love ? Shall I have loved ? 
Pot. Can I love ? Can I have loved ? &c. 

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb 
not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the negative ad- 
verb should be placed before the infinitive and participles ; 
as, Ind. I love not, or I do not love. I have not loved. I 
loved not, or I did not love. I had not loved, &c. Inf. 
Not to love. Not to have loved. Part. Not loving. Not 
loved. Not having loved. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, and negatively, in 
the indicative and 'potential modes, by placing the subject, 
and the adverb not, after the verb, or after the first auxiliary 
as, Love I not ? or Do I not love ? Have I not loved > 
Did I not love ? Had I not loved ? &c. 
8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

Tell the mode, tense, voice, number, and person of the following . — • 
She has loved. I might love. We had loved. We had been loved. He 
may have loved. If I be loved. I love. He will love. He shall have 
loved. I have loved. They shall have loved. She is loved. We may be 
loved. You might have been loved. If I love. If they love. They 
may love. We will love. I had loved. Thou hast loved. Thou wilt have 
loved. I love. Thou art loved. He was loved. She will have been 
loved. 

Write or repeat a full conjugation of the following verbs: — 

Relieve, betray, defy, persuade, resolve, determine. 

Conjugate two of the above verbs interrogatively, two of them negatively, 
mid two of them interrogatively and negatively, 

Give a synopsis of eitJier of the above verbs in either form, in the first, 
second, or third person. 



SYNOPSIS — PROGRESSIVE FORM. — VERB READ. 

Note. — The progressive form is the verb to be joined to the present par- 
ticiple. The pupil should be careful not to mistake this for the passive 
form, which is the verb to Rejoined to the passive participle. 

I am reading, I have been reading, I was reading, I had been reading, 
I shall be reading, I shall have been reading. I may be reading, I may 
have been reading, I might be reading, I might have been reading. If I 
am or be reading, if I have been reading, if I was or were reading, if I 
had been reading, if I shall be reading, if I shall have been reading. Be 
thou reading. To be reading, to have been reading. Reading, having been 
reading, 

EXERCISE. 

Write or repeat the full conjugation of write, play, sing, think, in the pro- 
gressive form. 

Give a synopsis of either of the above verbs in the second and third persons, 
singular and plural. 

Tell the difference between the progressive and passive forms. (See note 
above.) 

Correct the following examples in all respects : — 

i is going down sullur and will be lookin up some turnups and pertaties 
for dinner. Mary did nothin for rufus said he seen her. The steamboat 
come a puffin along faster nor the fishes would keep out er the way ont ; 
im in a quandary whether the steamboat or Rail road goes fastest, indian 
Rubers keeps out Snow, mud and Reign, its the Erly bird what ketches 
the wurm. 

SYNOPSIS — EMPHATIC FORM. 

In the emphatic form the auxiliary do is added to the simple verb for 
the present, and did for the past. It is found only in the indicative and 
Imperative modes. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. &\ 

Indicative. I do love, I did love. Imperative. Do thou love. 



FORMS FOR EACH DIVISION OF TIME COMBINED 

THE VERB TO MAKE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense* 





1st Sing, 

I 


» 2d Sing. 
Thou 


3d Sing 
He, She, It, 


1. Indef. 

2. Prog, incomp. 

3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 


make. 

am making, 

have made, 

have been making, 

do make, 

am made, 

have been made, 


makest, 

art making, 

hast made, 

hast been making, 

dost make, 

art made, 

hast been made, 


makes, 
is making, 
has made, 
has been making 
does make, 
is made, 
is making.* 
has been made. 




la* Plur. 


2d Plur. 


3d Plur. 




We 


Ye or You 


They 


.. Indef. 

2. Prog, incomp, 

3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 


make, 
, are making, 
have made, 
have been making, 
do make, 
are made, 

have been made, 


make, 

are making, 

have made, 

have been making, 

do make, 

are made, 

have been made, 


make. 

are making. 

have made. 

have been making. 

do make. 

are made. 

are making. 

have been made. 




Past Tense, 






1st Sing* 

I 


2d Sing. 
Thou 


3d Sing. 
He, She, It, 


1. Indef. 

2. Prog, incomp 

3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind- emp. 

6. Pas. md. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 


made, 
i. was making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
was made, 

had been made, 


madest, 
wast making, 
hadst made, 
hadst been making 
didst make, 
wast made, 

hadst been made, 


made. 

was making, 
had made, 
had been making 
did make, 
was made, 
was making, 
had been made. 




1st Plur. 


2d Plur. 


3d Plur. 




We 


Ye or You 


They 


1. Tndef. 

2. Prog, incomp 

3. Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Paa ind. 

7. Pas prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 


made, 
. were making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
were made, 

had been made, 


made, 

were making, 

had made, 

had been making, 

did make, 

were made, 

had been made, 


made. 

were making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
were made, 
were making, 
had been made. 



* The subject is usually some inanimate object ; as, " An effort is making " There 
»ay be still another form — the pas. prog. comp. ; as, " An effort has been making.* 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Future Tense. 



1st Sing. 
I 

1 J"nde f. will make, 

2 Prog, mcomp. will be making, 
will have made, 
will have been 



3- Comp, 

4 Prog. comp. 

5 Ind. emp. 

6 Pas ind. 

7 Pas. prog. 

8 Pas. comp. 



%d Sing. 
Thou 
wilt make, 
wilt be making, 
wilt have made, 
j wilt have been uiak- 

wilt be made, 



making, 
will be made, 
will have been made, wilt have been made, 



3d Sing 
He, She, It, 
will make, 
will be making, 
will have made. 
j will have been mak 
! ing. 

will be made, 
will be making 
will have been made 



1st Plur. 
We 

1. Tndef will make, 

2. Prog, incomp. will be making, 
will have made, 
will have been 



3 Comp. 

4. Prog. comp. 

5. Ind. emp. 

6. Pas. ind. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. comp. 



Qd Plur. 
Ye or You 
will make, 
will be making, 
will have made, 

[ will have been mak- 

( ing* 

will be made, 



making, 
will be made, 
will have been made, will have been made, 



ZdPlw\ 
They 
will make, 
will be making, 
will have made, 
will have been mak 
ing. 

will be made, 
will be making, 
will have been made. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An irregular verb is one which does not form its past 
tense and past participle by adding ed ; as, see, saw, seen ; 
write, wrote, written. 

Rem. — The following list contains the principal parts of the irregular 
verbs. Those verbs which are marked R. have also the regular forms, 
and those which are Italicized are either obsolete or are becoming so : — 



Present. 
Abide, 
Am, 
Arise, 
Awake, 

Bear, (to bring forth,) 
Bear, (to carry,) 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend, 
Bereave, 
Beseech, 
Bid, 

Bind, Tin-, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 
Blow, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 



Past. 
Abode, 
Was, 
Arose, 
Awoke, R. 
Bore, bare, 
Bore, bare. 
Beat, 
Began, 
Bend, r. 
Bereft, R. 
Besought, 
Bid, bade, 
Bound, 
Bit, 
Bled, 
Blew, 

Broke, brake, 
Bred, 
Brought , 



Past Participle. 
Abode. 
Been. 
Arisen. 
Awaked. 
Bom. 
Borne. 

Beaten, beat. 
Begun. 
Bent. 
Bereft, R. 
Besought. 
Bidden, bid. 
Bound. 
Bitten, bit 
Bled. 
Blown. 

Broker^ broke. 
Bred. 
Brought. 





ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR 


VERBS. ira 


Prettnt, 




Past 


Past Participle 


Build, lie-. 




Built, r. 


Built. 


Burn, 




Burnt, r. 


Burnt, R. 


Burst, 




Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 




Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 




Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 




Caught, R, 


Caught, R. 
Chidden, chid. 


Chide, 




Chid, 


Choose, 




Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave, (to 


adhere. ) 


Cleaved, clave, 


Cleaved. 


Cleave, (to split,) 


Clove, cleft, clave, 


Cleft, cloven, B. 


Cling, 




Clung, 


Clung. 


Clothe, 




Clad, r. 


Clad, r. 


Come, Be- 




Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 




Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep, 




Crept, 


Crept. 


Crow, 




Crew, R, 


Crowed. 


Cut, 




Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare, (to vt 


mture, ) 


Durst, 


Dared. 


Dare (to challenge) is r. 


Dared, 


Dared. 


Deal, 




Dealt, R. 


Dealt, R. 


Dig, 




Dug, R, 


Dug, R. 


Do, Mis-, i 


Un-, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 




Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 




Dreamt, R. 


Dreamt, R. 


Drink, 




Drank, 


Drunk, drank 


Drive, 




Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell 




Dwelt, R. 


Dwelt, R. 


Eat, 




Ate, eat, 


Eaten. 


Fall, Be-, 




Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 




Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 




Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 




Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 




Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 




Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 




Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 




Flew, 


Flown. 


Forbear, 




Forbore, 


Forborne. 


Forget, 




Forgot, 


Forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 




Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 




Froze, 


Frozen. 


Freight, 




Freighted, 


Fraught, R, 


Get, Be-, . 


For-, 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 




Gilt, R. 


Gilt, R. 


Gird, Be-, 


En-, 


Girt, R. 


Girt, R. 


Give, For- 


, Mis-, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 




Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, En- 


't 


Graved, 


Graven, R. 


Grind, 




Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 




Grew, 


Grown. 


Hang, 




Hung, 


Hung.* 


Have, 




Had, 


Had. 


Hear, 




Heard, 


Heard. 


Heave, 




Hove, r. 


Hoven, R. 


Hew, 




Hewed, 


Hewn, R. 


Hide, 




Hid, 


Hidden, hid. 


Hit, 




Hit, 


Hit. 



* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular 



94 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past ParticipU 


Hold, Be-, With-, 


Held, 


Held, holder 


Hurt, 


Hurt, 


Hurt. 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kept. 


Kneel, 


Knelt, r. 


Knelt, R. 


Knit, 


Knit, r. 


Knit, r. 


Know, 


Knew, 


Known. 


Lade, to had,* 


Laded, 


Laden. 


Lay, 


Laid, 


Laid. 


Lead, Mis-, 


Led, 


Led. 


Leave. 


Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Lent. 


Let, 


Let, 


Let. 


Lie, {to recline,) 


Lay, 


Lain. 


Light, 


Lit, r. 


Lit, r. 


Load, 


Loaded, 


Laden, R. 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meant. 


Meet, 


Met, 


Met. 


Mow, 


Mowed, 


Mown, r. 


Pay, Be-, 


Paid, 


Paid. 


Pen, (to enclose,) 


Pent, R. 


Pent, r 


Put, 


Put, 


Put. 


Quit, 


Quit, r. 


Quit, R. 


Bead, 


Read, 


Read. 


Rend, 


Rent, 


Rent. 


Rid, 


Rid, 


Rid. 


Ride, 


Rode, rid, 


Ridden, rid, 


Ring, 


Rang, rung, 


Rung. 


Rise, A- f 


Rose, 


Risen. 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Riven, r. 


Rot, 


Rotted,, 


Rotten, r. 


Run, 


Ran, run.. 


Run. 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Sawn, R. 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Seethe, 


Sod, r. 


Sodden, R. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Sold. 


Send, 


Sent, 


Sent. 


Set, Be-, 


Set, 


Set. 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shaken. 


Shape, Mis-, 


Shaped, 


Shapen, R. 


Shave, 


Shaved, 


Shaven, r. 


Shear, 


Sheared, 


Shorn, r. 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shed. 


Shine, 


Shone, R. 


Shone, r 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 


Shot. 


Show, 


Showed, 


Shown. 


Shred, 


Shred, 


Shred. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, shrank, 


Shrunk. 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sing, 
Sink, 


Sang, sung, 


Sung. 


Sunk, sank, 


Sunk. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sat. 



* Lade, to dip t is regular. 



ETYMOLOGY IRREGULAR VERBS. 



95 



Present. 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, (to scatter,) 

Speak, Be-, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, Mis-, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, Be-, 

Split, 

Spread, Be-, 

Spring, 

Stand, With-, &c, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow, or Strew, Be-, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 



Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, Be-, &c, 

Teach, Mis-, Re-. 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, Be-, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 



Past. 

Slew, 

Slept, 

Slid, 

Slung, slang, 

Slunk, 

Slit, 

Smote, 

Sowed, 

Spoke, spafce, 

Sped, 

Spelt, R. 

Spent, 

Spilt, R. 

Spun, span, 

Spit, spat, 

Spilt, 

Spread, 

Sprang, sprung, 

Stood, 

Stole, 

Stuck, 

Stung, 

Stroke, strid, 

Struck, 

Strung, 

Strove, 

Strowed or strewed, 

Swore, sware, 

Sweat, r. 

Swept, 

Swelled, 

Swam, swum, 

Swung, 

Took, 

Taught, 

Tore, tare, 

Told, 

Thought, 

Throve, r 

Threw, 

Thrust, 

Trod, 

Waxed, 

Wore, 

Wove, 

Wept, 

Wet, r. 

Whet, b. 

Won, 

Wound, r. 

Wrought, r. 

Wrung, r. 

Wrote, 



Past Participle. 
Slain. 
Slept. 

Slidden, slid. 
Slung. 
Slunk. 
Slit, R. 

Smitten, smit. 
Sown, r. 
Spoken. 
Sped. 
Spelt, r» 
Spent. 
Spilt, r 
Spun. 
Spit. 

Spat. 

Spread. 

Sprung, 

Stood. 

Stolen. 

Stuck. 

Stung 

Stridden, strid. 

Struck, stricken 

Strung. 

Striven. 

Strown, strewn, b 

Sworn. 

Sweat, r. 

Swept. 

Swollen, r. 

Swum. 

Swung. 

Taken. 

Taught. 

Torn. 

Told. 

Thought. 

Thriven, r 

Thrown. 

Thrust. 

Trodden, trod. 

Waxen, r. 

Worn. 

Woven. 

Wept 

Wet, r. 

Whet, r 

Won. 

Wound. 

Wrought, b 

Wrung. 

Written. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

Give the past % and past participle of teach, ting, write, read, hurt, si^ 
arise, take, beat, tell, &c, &c. 

Give the present and past for the following past participles : Thrown, 
sworn, swum, built, spoken, stolen, &c, &c 
Correct the following examples : — 

The blossoms have fell from the trees. Mary come to school in haste. 
Sarah's exercise is wrote badly. The thief stoled the money and telled a 
falsehood about it. The lake is froze hard. Charles has took the wrong 
course. The bell ringed loud. The soldiers fit bravely. She did not git 
the premium. The exercise is writ badly. James has not spoke the 
truth. A sad misfortune has befell him. The carriage was drawed by 
four horses. Being weary I laid down and ris much refreshed. The 
ball was throwed too high. I see the soldiers when they come. The 
wind has blowed the fruit from the trees, and broke the branches. 
He sit down upon the bank. The cattle were drove to pasture. Af- 
ter he had strove many times he wined the prize. The bee stinged 
her badly. He has took my knife. The sky has wore a cloudy as- 
pect for several days. She singed the song well. The cars have ran off 
the track. She has weaved the cloth beautifully. Who teched him gram- 
mar ? These apples have growed very fast. He clinged to the mast. He 
five me some money. Anna stringed the beads quickly. The vessel has 
ove in sight. She springed a leak. The stone sraitf him in the face. 
The river has overflown its banks. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Defective, verbs are those in which some of the principal 
parts are wanting. 

They are may, can, shall, and will, which have the past 
tense, but no participles ; must and ought, which have nei- 
ther a past tense nor participles ; quoth, which has neither 
a present tense nor participles. 

Rem. 1. — "When must refers to past time, it is used in the present per- 
fect tense ; as, " He must have left." When ought refers to past time, it 
is followed by the perfect infinitive. 

Rem. 2. — Quoth is now seldom used. Beware (be ware or wary) is 
used mostly in the imperative mode ; as, " Beware of dogs." 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is 
asserted independently of any particular subject ; as, " It 
rains." " It snows."" 

Rem. 1. — Metfrinks, methought, meseems, meseemed, may be regarded 
as impersonal, or rather unipersonal verbs. They are equivalent to fihinA, 
I thought^ It seemSf it seemed to me. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 9T 



MODEL FOR PAUSING. 

(1.) Give the part of speech, and tell why. 
(2.) Tell whether it is regular or irregular, and why. 
(3.) Give the principal parts. 

(4.) Tell whether it is transitive or intransitive, and why. 
(5.) " the voice and fonn, and why. 
(6.) " mode, and why. 
(7.) " tense, and why. 
(8.) Inflect the tense. 

(9.) Tell the number and person, and why. 
(10.) Give the rule. 

Note. — If the verb is in the infinitive, instead of giving the number, 
person, and inflection, give the construction and the rule. If the verb is 
in one of the compound tenses, analyze it according to the model, (p. 70.) 
If the verb is defective, tell the parts that are used, and parse it according 
to the model. If the form is a participle, tell what kind, the verb from 
which it is derived, conjugate, give the construction and rule. After the 
pupil has made some progress, the following short form may be adopted : — 

(1.) It is a regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive verb, (if transi- 
tive,) active or passive form, 
(2.) Principal parts* 
(3.) Mode. 
(4.) Tense. 

(5.) Number and person. 
(6.) Construction and rule* 

EXAMPLES. 

" Sarah has written a letter." 

Hat written ... is a verb ; a word which expresses being, action, or state ; 
irregular — it does not form its past tense, and past par- 
ticiple by adding ed ; principal parts, (pres. write, past 
wrote, past part, written ;) transitive — it requires the 
addition of an object to complete its meaning; active 
voice — it represents the subject as acting ; common form 

— it represents an act indefinitely, as a custom, or as 
completed, without reference to its progress ; indicative 
mode — it asserts a thing as actual; present perfect tense 

— it expresses an action completed in present time ; it 
is formed by prefixing have, which denotes present time, 
and is the sign of completion to the past participle icrit- 
ten, which denotes completion ; ( I have written, thou hast 
written, he has written ; we have written, you have writ- 
ten, they have written ;) third person singular number^ 
because its subject, Sarah, is, with which it agrees, ac- 
cording to Rule IV. " The verb must agree with its sub- 
ject in number and person." 

" She can play." 

(km play .... is a verb, (why ?) regular, (why ?) principal parts , (why ?) 
9 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



intransitive, (why ?) common for?n, (why ?) potetjtial 
mode, (why ?) present tense, (why ?) (analyze and in- 
flect it,) first person, singular number, (why ?) Rule IV. 

" America was discovered by Columbus." 

Was discov&red . is a regular transitive verb, passive voice — or which is 
the same thing, a regular passive verb — the subject is rep- 
resented as acted upon ; (discover, discovered, discovered,) 
indicative mode, (why ?) past tense, (why ?) (analyze and 
inflect it, ) third person, singular number, and agrees with 
its subject, America, according to Rule IV. 

" I love to see the sun shine." 

. . is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, &c, infini 
tive mode, (why ?) present tense, and limits love, accord- 
ing to Rule XVI. " The infinitive has the construc- 
tion of the noun &c." 

" If they were reading the book." 

Were reading . . is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, progressive 
form, (why ?) subjunctive mode, (why ?) &c 

" Has he come ? " 

Has come .... is an irregular intransitive verb, common form, (conju- 
gated interrogatively,) &c 



To *» 



EXERCISES. 

Parse the verbs in the folloicing examples : — 

Will you help me ? I hope for better things. Blessed is the consoler. 
Have you found the paper ? I would not have believed it. I could not live 
to see it. Do good to all. She had gone to walk. The weather was un- 
pleasant. Did you lose your umbrella ? I heard the carriage. If you 
wish, I will accompany you. She must learn her lesson. She hoped to 
have gone. Why will you persist ? Reverence the aged. 

Add an object and change the following transitive verbs from the active to 
the passive voice : — 

Mary loved. They read. John wrote. I made. Henry lost. The 
girls moved. The little boy hid. The children played. He threw. Anna 
found. You struck. He rowed. Hear. The father punished. Jane 
broke. Give. Will you lend ? They left Thus : Mary loved the truth 
= The truth was loved by Mary. 

Change the folloicing transitive verbs from the passive to the active form, 
and supply a subject when it is omitted. 

America was discovered in 1492. Religious liberty was established in 
Rhode Island. The Magna Charta was granted to the English. The 
Mexicans were defeated at Buena Vista. The king was concealed in the 
tree. The retreat of the Greeks was conducted very skilfully. A great 
battle was fought at Marathon. The gunpowder plot was discovered. 
King Charles was restored to the throne in 1660. Paradise Lost was writ 
ten by Milton. The Messiah was written by a distinguished poet. The 
apples were seen to fall. The book was improved by the master.^ The 
world was created. Thus : Christopher Columbus discovered America in 
1492. 



ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 99 



ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, adjective, participle, or other adverb ; as, " He learns 
quickly." 

Rem. 1. — When an idea, however expressed, is put in such relation to a 
verb, an adjective, a participle, or an adverb, as to express some circum- 
stance of place, time, cause, or manner, it is adverbial, because it is placed 
in an adverbial relation in the sentence. The same idea placed in relation 
to a noun or pronoun is of the nature of an adjective ; as, " He who acts 
uprightly is an upright man." 

Rem. 2. — When an adverbial idea is expressed by a single word, that 
word is called an adverb; as, " He walks slowly" The relation is deter- 
mined either by the termination, the position, or the meaning. When the 
idea is expressed by a noun, the relation is expressed by a preposition ; as, 
" The affair was managed with prudence " = prudently. In this case the 
phrase, consisting of the preposition and noun, is said to be adverbial. When 
the idea is expressed by a proposition, the relation is expressed by a con- 
junctive adverb. Here the clause, consisting of a connective, subject, and 
predicate, is adverbial ; as, " Speak so that you can be understood 1 '' = dis- 
tinctly. 

Rem. 3. — Words properly called adverbs are abridged expressions. 
They take the place of phrases consisting of a preposition and noun ; as, 
" He lived there " = in tJiat place. " He conducted wisely " = in a wise 
manner. 

Rem. 4. — Sometimes an adverb seems to qualify a noun, and thereby 
to partake of the nature of an adjective ; as, " I found the boy only" 

Rem. 5. — Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase, or an entire proposi- 
tion ; as, " Far from home." " The old man likewise came to the city." 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

She sang sweetly. The wind moaned mournfully over her grave. O, 
lightly, lightly tread. Come to me quickly. The storm raged fearfully. 
When shall I see you again ? They lived very happily. They were agree- 
ably disappointed. Do you expect them to-morrow ? She is continually 
changing her mind. I saw him frequently. Mary is always happy. I 
found the book there. She performs her duty faithfully. It cannot be 
true. Perhaps I shall go. Doubtless it is true. George writes elegantly. 

Insert the following adverbs in sentences of your own : — 
Where, hopefully, soon, bravely, yes, surely, undeniably, sorrowfully; 
briefly, quite, exceedingly, emphatically, below, above, ever, constantly. 
bo, yet, although, no, verily, tediously, trustingly, patiently, yesterday 
therefore, nearly, charmingly, lovingly, brightly, never, heroically. 

Correct the following expressions in all respects : — 

Tell Mary to come quick. That looks good. The flower smells sweet. 
He ketched cold a going out. The wind bio wed dreadful. He teached m© 
as good as he could. The little boy was drownded. They did the sum 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

right. She hadnt ought to tell. I don't believe a word ont. Have you 
come near a mile ? Taint true. Doesnt she look charming ? Aint she 
handsome. Mary drawed a picter beautiful. Let each one do all they can. 
My feet's cold. I have got a new book aint you glad. Im e'en a' most 
melted. Set right down here. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs may be divided into four general classes — ad- 
verbs of place, of time ^ of cause, of manner, 

(1.) Adverbs of place answer the questions Where ? Whither? Whence? 
B&j here, there t above, yonder, below, somewhere, back, upwards, down- 
wards, &c. 

(2.) Adverbs of time answer the questions When? How long? How 
often ? as, then, yesterday, always, continually, often, frequently, &c. 

(3.) Adverbs of cause answer the questions Why ? Wherefore ? as, 
why, wherefore, therefore, then, 

Note. — Causal relations are commonly expressed by phrases and clauses. 

(4.) Adverbs of manner and degree answer the question How ? as, ele- 
gantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. They are generally derived from adjectives 
denoting quality. 

Note. — Under the head of degree may be classed those which answer 
the question How ? in respect to quantity or quality, as, How much f 
How good f &c. ; as, too, very, greatly, chiefly, perfectly, mainly, wholly, to- 
tally, quite, exceedingly. 

Rem. 1. — Modal adverbs, or those which show the manner of the asser- 
tion, belong to this class also. The following are the principal modal ad 
verbs : yes, yea, verily, truly, surely, undoubtedly, doubtless, forsooth, cer- 
tainly ; no, nay, not, possibly •, probably ', perhaps, per 'adventure, perchance. 

Rem. 2. — The adverbs when, where, ivhy, hoio, &c, when used in ask- 
ing questions, are called interrogative adverbs ; as, " When did he come ? " 

Rem. 3. — Adverbs of manner are generally formed from adjectives by 
adding ly ; as, bright, bright-/?/; smooth, smooth-/?/. But when the adjec- 
tive ends in ly, the phrase is commonly used; as, "in a lovely manner," 
instead of lovelily. 

Rem. 4. — There is used as an expletive to introduce a sentence when 
the verb to be denotes existence ; as, " There are many men of the same 
opinion." It is also sometimes used with the verbs seem, appear, come, 
go, and others ; as, " There went out a decree from Csesar Augustus." In 
this use it has no meaning. 

Rem. 5. — The adverb so is often used as a substitute for some preceding 
word or group of words ; as, u He is in good business, and is likely to re- 
main so." 

EXERCISE, 

Tell the class of the following adverbs :—• 

Very, greafiy, perhaps, therefore, below, to-morrow, when, there, pure- 
ly, truly, always, continually, yesterday, why, sorrowfully, oainfully, down* 
above, here, vainly, exceedingly. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 101 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Conjunctive adverbs are those which give to a dependent 
clause an adverbial relation, and connect it with the verb, 
adjective, or adverb, which it modifies ; as, " I shall meet my 
friend when the boat arrives." 

Rem. 1. — The principal conjunctive adverbs will be found under the 
head of connectives. (See p. 106.) They are equivalent to two phrases, the 
one containing a relative pronoun, the other its antecedent ; as, " The 
lilies grow where the ground is moist " = The lilies grow in that place in 
which the ground is moist. Here the phrase in that place modifies grows , 
and the phrase in which modifies moist; hence where, the equivalent of 
the two, modifies both. 

Rem. 2. — The words therefore*, wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, 
then, 7ioio, besides, likewise, also, too, moreover, and some others, are ad- 
verbs, and at the same time are used — either alone or when associated with 
other connectives, to join propositions. But unlike conjunctive adverbs, 
they connect coordinate and not subordinate clauses. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the conjunctive adverbs in the following examples : — 

He will be prepared when the time arrives. Where I go, you shall go. 

She may return whenever she wishes. He disobeyed the rule, although 

he knew it was wrong. Whither I go ye cannot come. He came as soon 

as his engagements would permit. I will go because she wishes to see me. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Many adverbs, especially those denoting manner, admit 
of comparison ; as, brightly, more brightly, most brightly ; 
soon, sooner, soonest. 

Rem. 1. — When an adjective undergoes comparison, it shows that two or 
more objects are compared ; but when an adverb undergoes the same change, 
it shows that two or more actions or qualities are compared ; as, " James 
speaks more fluently than George " [speaks.] 

Rem. 2. — The following adverbs are compared irregularly : III or badly, 
worse, worst; little, less, least; far, farther, farthest ; much, more, most; 
well, better, best. 

EXERCISES. 

Compare the following adverbs : — 

Coolly, noiselessly, famously, soon, near, little, well, much, joyfully, 
pensively. 

Tell the degree of comparison of the following : — 

More, earnestly, nearer, soonest, brightly, most, worst, comparatively 
most plentifully. 

9* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARSING. 

To parse an adverb, tell, — 

(1.) What part of speech it is, and why. 

(2.) Compare it, (where it admits of it,) and tell what degree. 

(3.) Tell what it modifies. 

(4.) Give the rule* 

MODEL, 
" The sun shines brightly." 

Brightly .... is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; it is 
compared (positive brightly, comparative more brightly, su> 
perlative most brightly ;) it is in the positive degree ; it modi* 
ties the verb shines, according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.) 
S 
" Mary writes more elegantly than her brother." 

More elegantly . is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; it is 
compared, (elegantly, more elegantly, most elegantly ;) it ig 
in the comparative degree ; it modifies the verb writes^ 
according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.) 

" I will go whenever you wish." 

Whenever .... is a conjunctive adverb, because it gives to the dependent 
clause an adverbial relation, and connects it with the verjj 
will go ; it modifies both will go and wish, according to 
Rule IX. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Note. — For an oral exercise, see Introduction. 

A preposition is a word used to show the relation of 3 
noun or pronoun to some other word ; as, " The ship was 
seen from the citadel." " He sailed upon the ocean in a ship 
of wax" 

Rem. 1. —The preposition always shows a relation between two' terms, 
an antecedent and a subsequent. The subsequent term is called the object 
of the preposition. The preposition and object united form a dependen 
element of the sentence having the antecedent term as its principal. 

Rem. 2. — The preposition always shows a relation of dependence. 
When the antecedent term is a noun, the dependent phrase is of the nature 
of an adjective ; as, " The rays of the sun " = solar y^js. 

When the antecedent term is a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, the 
dependent phrase is of the nature of an adverb, (sometimes an indirect 
object;) as, "The case was conducted with skill" = skilfully. 

Rem. 3. — The object of the preposition is not always a -single word ; it 
may be a, phrase or clause ; as, " The city was about to capitulate when Na- 
poleon arrived." " Much will depend on who the commissioners are. ' 



ETYMOLOGY ■ 



PREPOSITIONS. 



103 



before, 
behind, 


for, 


through, 


from, 


throughout, 


below, 


in, into, 


till, 


beneath, 


'mid, 


to, 


beside or 


'midst, 


touching, 


besides, 


notwithstanding, 


toward or 


between, 


of, 


towards, 


betwixt, 


for, 


under, 


beyond, 


on, 


underneath, 


by, . 


out of, 


until, 


concerning, 


over, 


unto, 


down, 


past, 


up, 


during, 


regarding, 


upon, 


ere, 


respecting, 


with, 


except, 


round, 


within, 


excepting, 


since, 


without. 



Rem. 4. — The preposition is sometimes placed after its object ; as, 
* While its song, sublime as thunder, rolls the woods along:' The prep- 
osition and object sometimes precede the word on which they depend ; as, 
" O/'all patriots, Washington was the noblest." 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions in use : — 

aboard, 

about, 

above, 

according to, 

across, 

after, 

against, 

along, 

amid or 

amidst, 

among or 

amongst, 

around, 

at, 

athwart, 

bating, 

Rem. I. — According to, as to, as for, out of, instead of, because of, off 
from, over against, round about, from among, from between, from around, 
from before] and the like, may be regarded as complex prepositions, and 
parsed as a single word ; or the first word of the phrase may be parsed as 
an adverb. According, contrary, in the phrases according to, contrary to, 
are sometimes regarded as participles or adjectives modifying some noun 
in the sentence. 

Rem. 2. — In such connections as the following, put wi, go up, go down, 
cut through, pass by, climb up, and the like, the preposition may be parsed 
as an adverb when it is not followed by an object ; also the Italicized words 
in such sentences as the following : " The captain stood in for the shore." 
" They rode by in haste." 

Rem. 3. — Some words, most commonly prepositions, are occasionally 
used as adverbs ; these are, before, after, till, until, above, beneath, for, on, 
in, &c. So also some words commonly employed as adverbs are some- 
times used as prepositions ; as, but, save, despite, &c. Off is usually an 
adverb, but may be parsed as a preposition when followed by an object. 
Instead is either a preposition, or equivalent to a preposition and noun =s 
in stead. 

Rem. 4. — In such expressions, as, a hunting, a fishing, and the like, if 
authorized at all, the a may be regarded as itself a preposition, or a con- 
traction of at, in, or on. 



PARSING. 

To parse a preposition, tell, — 

(1.) What part of speech, and why. 

(2.) Between what words it shows the relation. 

(3.) Give the rule. 



" He went from England to France." 
From Vs a preposition ; it is used to show the relation between a noun OJ? 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pronoun and some other word ; it shows the relation between 
the noun England and the verb went, according to Rule XIIL 
(Repeat it.) 
To ... is a preposition ; it shows the relation between the noun France 
and the verb went, according to Rule XIII. 

Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, and tell hetioeen what 
words tliey show the relation. 

He heard the birds sing in the morning. The buds are swelling in the 
sun's warm rays. The winds will come from the distant south. The bees 
gather honey from the flowers. I bring fresh showers for the thirsty flow- 
ers from sea and stream. I shall be Queen of the May. In the garden the 
crocus blooms. The hills are covered with a carpet" of green. We shall 
have pleasant walks "with our friends. We shall seek the early fruits in 
the sunny valley. 

Make use of the following prepositions in, senteiwes of your own: — 
Under, above, on, before, behind, from, beneath, by, except, during, 

around, through, over, past, without, within, till, towards, according to # 

beyond, across, in, up, with, notv/ithstanding. 

Correct the following expressions in all respects : — 

The ship lays in the harbor. They sung very good. She laid down. 
Will you shut up the winder ? I have took that book from its place. They 
spended all their money. He begun his work. The wasp stinged him. 
He knowed it wasnt true. Somebody has stole my pen. Her shoes are 
wore out. The sun has rose. The trees growed fast. She throwed the 
ball jist so high as she could. He set down. He has went away afore I 
come. Ive hearn tell. They come right home. A dog drawed the wagon. 
The books are tore bad. She had fell down, and hurted herself. 

How many instances of incorrect expressions Jiave you noticed to-day f 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

Note. — For oral exercise, see Introduction. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the 
parts of sentences ; as, u The horse fell over the precipice, 
hut the rider escaped." " The horse and rider fell over the 
precipice." 

In the first example, but connects two sentences j in the second, and connects the 
two parts, horse and rider. 

Rem. 1. — A pure conjunction forms no part of the material or sub- 
stance of a sentence ; its office is simply to unite the materials into a sin- 
gle structure. 

Rem. 2. — Besides pure conjunctions, there is a large class of words 
which enter into the sentence as a part of its substance, and at the same 
time connect different elements or parts ; as, " This is the pencil ichich I 
lost." Here which is the object of lost, and at the same time connects the 
dependent clause, which I lost, to pencil. All such words are called con* 
ncctives or conjunctive icords. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 105 

CLASSES OF CONNECTIVES. 

All connectives (whether pure conjunctions or conjunc- 
tive words) are divided into two classes — coordinate and 
subordinate. t Coordinate connectives are those which join 
similar or homogeneous elements ; as, " John and James 
were disciples." 

Here John and James are similar in construction, and have a common relation to 
the predicate. 

Rem. 1. — Two elements are coordinate, and consequently demand a 
coordinate conjunction, when they are placed in the same relation or rank ; 
as, " The insects devoured leaves and blossoms." Here leaves is dependent 
on devoured ; blossoms also is not only dependent, but has precisely the 
same sort of dependence as leaves ; hence they are coordinate with each 
other. In the sentence, " The insects devoured the leaves greedily, ,, leaves 
and greedily are both dependent on devoured, but they have by no means 
the same dependence ; hence they are not coordinate, and cannot be con- 
nected by and, or any other coordinate conjunction. 

Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions, and may 
be divided into three classes — copulative, adversative, and 
alternative. 

Copulative conjunctions are those which add parts in har- 
mony with each other ; as, " The day dawned, and our 
friends departed." 

The copulative conjunctions are, — 

(1.) And, a connective of the most general character, placing the con- 
nected parts in a relation of perfect equality, without modification or em- 
phasis. 

(2.) So, also, likewise, too, besides, moreover, furthermore, note, hence, 
whence, therefore, wherefore, consequently, even, connectives associated 
with and expressed or understood, and used to give emphasis, or some 
additional idea ; as, " She sings ; [and] besides she plays beautifully." 

(3.) Not only . . . but, but also, but likewise, as well . . . as, both . . . 
and, first . . . secondly, thirdly, &c. ; connectives employed when we wish 
not only to make the second part emphatic, but to awaken an expectation 
of some addition. As these parts correspond to each other, these connec- 
tives are called correlatives. 

Adversative conjunctions are those which unite parts in 
opposition to, or in contrast with, each other ; as, " The fish 
was brought to the shore, but plunged into the water again." 

Rem. — Adversative conjunctions are employed, (1.) "When the second 
part is placed in opposition to the first ; as, " It does not rain, but it 
anows." (2.) When the second partis placed in opposition to a supposed 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

inference from the first ; as, " The army was "victorious, but the general wat 
slain. Here, lest the inference should be that all was prosperous, the sec- 
ond clause with but is added. 

The adversative conjunctions are, — 

(1.) But, which simply shows opposition without emphasis ; as, " I shall 
go, but I shall not walk." ^ 

(2.) Yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however, now, and some oth- 
ers, which are associated with but, either expressed or understood, and give 
emphasis or some additional idea ; as, " The delinquent has been repeated- 
ly admonished, (but) still he is as negligent as ever." 

Alternative conjunctions are those which offer or deny a 
choice between two things ; as, " We must fight, or our lib- 
erties will be lost." " She can neither sing nor play." 

The alternative conjunctions are, — 

(1.) Or, which offers, and nor, (?iot or,) which denies a choice. 
(2.) Else, otherwise, associated with or for the sake of emphasis. 
(3.) Either and neither, correlatives of or and nor. 

Note. — Parts standing in a causal relation to each other are some- 
times coordinate ; but usually there are, in such cases, two connectives, 
one expressed and the other understood; as, " The south wind blows, 
[and] therefore, there must be rain." 

Subordinate connectives are those which join dissimilar or 
heterogeneous elements ; as, " I shall go when the stage 
arrives." 

Here when joins the subordinate clause, when the stage arrives, to the verb shall go. 
It is a part of the clause itself, being equivalent to at the time in zchich. Hence it should 
be introduced in naming the clause ; but not so with the pure coordinate conjunctions. 

Rem. 1. — The second element is always a proposition ; it is subordinate, 
and consequently demands a subordinate connective, because it becomes 
merely a limiting expression of the antecedent term on which it depends. 
It is unlike the part with which it is connected in its form, in its relation or 
rank, and in its grammatical character. 

Rem. 2. — A subordinate connective, like a preposition, always shows a 
relation of dependence. But the second term is a proposition, instead of a 
noun or pronoun. 

Subordinate connectives are divided into three classes — 
those which connect substantive clauses, those which con- 
nect adjective clauses, and those which connect adverbial 
clauses. 

(1.) Substantive clauses containing a statement are connected by the 
conjunctions that, that not, and sometimes but, but that. Substantive 
clauses containing an inquiry are connected by the interrogatives who 
which, what, where, whither, whence, wlien, how long, how often, why 
whei-efore, how. 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCTIONS. 



10. 



(2.) Adjective clauses are connected by the relative pronouns who, 
which, what, that, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, 
whatsoever, and sometimes the relative adverbs why, when, where. 

(3.) Adverbial clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverbs wliere, 
whither, whence, wherever, whithersoever, as far as, as long as, farther than, 
which denote PLACE ; when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, 
since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant, as frequently as, 
as often as, which denote TIME; or the conjunctions because, for, as, where- 
as, since, inasmuch, (causal,) if, unless, though, lest, except, provided, pro- 
vided that, (conditional,) that, that not, lest, (final,) though, although, 
notwithstanding, however, whatever, whoever, whichever, while, with the 
correlatives yet, still, nevertheless, (adversative,) which denote CAUSAL re- 
lations; as, just as, so . . . as, same . . . as, (correspondence,) so . . . 
that, such . . . that, (consequence,) as . . . as, (comparison of equality,) 
the . . . the, the . . . so much the, (proportionate equality,) than, more 
tlunn, less than, (comparison of inequality,) which denote MANNER. 



PARSING. 

In parsing a conjunction or connective, tell, — 

(1.) What part of speech, and why. 
(2.) To w T hat class it belongs. 
(3.) What elements it connects. 
(4.) Give the rule, 

" Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers." 

And ... is a cmjunction ; it is used to connect sentences, or the parts of 
sentences.; coordinate, because it connects similar elements; 
it connects Socrates and Plato, according to Rule XI. (Re- 
peat it.) 

H "Wisdom is better than riches." 

Than . . is a conjunction, (why ?) subordinate, because it connects dissimi- 
lar elements ; it connects the proposition than riches (are) with 
better, according to Rule XV. (Repeat it.) 

" We must either obey or be punished." 

Either . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) used to awaken expec- 
tation of an additional element, and also to introduce it with 
emphasis. 

Or .... is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) and with its correlative 
either is used to connect the element be punished with must 
obey. Rule XL (Repeat it.) 

" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

Though . is a subordinate conjunction, (adversative,) used to awaken ex- 
pectation of an additional idea. 

Yet ... is a subordinate conjunction, (adversative,) and with its correla- 
tive thouahis used to connect the subordinate clause, " he slay 
me," with the principal one, " will I trust in him" according 
to Rule XV. 



108 ENGLISH GBAMMAR 



EXERCISE& 



Point out the conjunctions in the following examples : — 
The moon and stars are shining. David or his sister will come. The 
king and queen were on a journey. He neither went himself nor allowed 
his friends to go. Let us go and play. Come with us, and we will do you 
good. 

Tell which of the following connectives are coordinate ', and which are sub- 
ordinate : — 

The pen and ink are poor. The horse and the rider were plunged into 
the water. If you come, I shall have the work in readiness. When the 
million applaud, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. He 
knew that he had disobeyed instructions. That which cannot be cured 
must be endured. Take heed lest ye fall. 

Parse the connectives in the following sentences : — 

I have found a knife and fork. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I 
to the lame. He can neither stand nor walk. They stopped where night 
overtook them. Truth is powerful, and will prevail. If you have nothing 
to say, say nothing. 

Write appropriate connectives in place of the dashes in the following : — 

it should rain, I shall not go. — the cat is away, the mice 

will play. Samuel— —his brother came to town* We learn to read 
write* 



INTERJECTION. 

An interjection is a word used to express some strong or 
sudden emotion of the mind. M Alas I I then have chid 
away my friend." 

Rem. 1. — As the interjection is not the sign of a thought, but merely 
an expression of emotion, it cannot have any definable signification, or 
grammatical construction ; but as it is of frequent use in colloquial and 
impassioned discourse, it should not be omitted in parsing. 

Note. —Interjection is derived from the Latin word interjectus=. thrown 
between. 

Rem. 2. — The most common interjections are, hey, hurrah, huzza, ex- 
pressing joy or exultation ; aha, hah, ah^ expressing surprise ; ho, lo, halloo, 
hem, calling attention ; fie, pshaw, pjfjh, tush, foh, expressing aversion or 
contempt ; alas, woe, alack, O, expressing sorrow, grief, or compassion ; 
hist, hush, mum, expressing a wish for silence ; heigh-ho, heigh-ho-hum, 
expressing languor ; ha, ha, he, he, expressing laughter. 

Rem. 3. — Some words used as interjections should be parsed as verbs, 
nouns, or adjectives ; as in the sentence " Strange ! cried I." Strange is 
an adjective, and the expression is equivalent to " it is strange; " and ift 
the sentence, " Behold ! how well he bears misfortune's frowns ! " behold 
is a verb in the imperative, equivalent to behold ye. 



ETYMOLOGY INTERJECTION. lO'J 



PARSING. 

To parse an interjection, tell, — 

(1.) "What part of speech, and why? 
(2.) Give the rule. 

n 0, lightly, lightly tread." 

') . . is \i\ interjection; it is used to express some strong or sudden emo- 
tion of the mind ; it has no grammatical connection with any other 
word. Rule X. 



EXERCISE. 

Point out and parse the interjections in the following sentences : — 

O, I shall love the sea because it is his grave. Hark ! they whisper, an- 
gels say, " Sister spirit ! come away ! " He died, alas ! in early youth. 
Long live Lord Robin ! huzza ! huzza ! 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 

ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
Parse the words in the following examples : — 

The wedding will take place to-morrow. The school was dismissed at 
five o'clock. Every endeavor to do right brings its own reward. They 
heard the music of the band. Ask them to come and spend the evening 
with us. The hero of a hundred battles is no more. He must study, for 
without attention he cannot improve. O, why did you deceive me ? The 
hour of retribution has at length arrived. Could he do this, and I remain 
silent ? He sacrificed every thing he had in this world : what could we ask 
more? 

If he confessed it, then forgive him. The effect of this devotion of ele- 
gant minds to rural occupations has been wonderful on the face of the 
country. The low of herds blends with the rustling of the heavy grain. 
The Creator of all things is infinitely good. 

On the sad evening before the death of the noble youth, I was with him. 
The ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow to billow. Man, we believe, 
never loses the sentiment of his true good. How different would have 
been our lot this day, both as men and citizens, had the revolution failed 
of success ! He that loveth not his brother, whom he hath seen, how can 
he love God, whom he hath not seen ? We one day descried some shape- 
less object drifting at a distance. The most exalted virtue is often de- 



They resided for a long time in Italy. The nightingale sings most sweet- 
ly when it sings in the night. Think on me, when it shail be well with 
thee. 

10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAS* 



SYNTAX. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

When I have a single idea in my mind, as that of a lamb, how mam , 
words do I use to express it ? Ans. One. But if I have an idea of a lamb 
and also an idea of its playing, how many ideas have I ? Ans. Two. Ho-w 
many words must I now use ? Ans. Two, lamb and playing. But when I 
think of the lamb and the playing, I think of them both together. I can 
not see the playing without seeing the lamb. How can I show that they 
are both united ? Ans. By uniting the words a playing lamb. But when 
I wish to tell you, or say to" you what the lamb does, and not to express what 
kind of a lamb I see, what should I then say ? Ans. The lamh plays. 
Then, in either case, I must put the words together. What is this putting 
words together called ? Ans. Syntax = putting together. Now, when we 
put two words together so that one merely describes the other, as, blooming 
lily, we show that the ideas are connected ; also when we put them together 
so as to tell or declare what we think or judge, as, " The lily blooms,'* we 
show a connection ; but what else do we express ? Ans. A thought or judg- 
ment. Now sentence (sententia = thought) means a thought ; what, then, 
shall we call such expressions as dogs bark, trees grow, flowers fade 1 
Ans. Sentences. Which of the following are sentences, and which are 
not ? — Flowing water, water flows ; melting ice, ice melts ; falling rain, 
rain falls ; the fierce dog, the dog is fierce ; the white sheep, the sheep is 
white. 

Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

A sentence is a thought expressed in words ; as, " The 
winds blow." " The snow melts." 

To understand a sentence we must attend to its construc- 
tion, its analysis, and the principles or rules by which its 
parts are combined. 



L CONSTRUCTION - Sentence-making.* 

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate ; as, 
Trees (sub.) groiv (pred.) 

As every structure must have a foundation, so every sentence must hsv? 
a subject, \subjectus = thrown under as a foundation,) or something of 

* To the Teacher. — The object of the teacher in this important department of 
syntax should be to draw the attention of the pupil to the parts of a sentence as they 
cluster around the subject and predicate. Although it implies a species of analysis 
to be able to point out the parts as in the exercises under " Construction," yet the spe- 
cific rules and models for analyzing are placed, for the sake of convenience, in a sepa- 
rate division. The following examples are classified according to certain peculiarities, 
which will, in the pupil's progress, become obvious ; but at first it will be best for 
th« teacher to be guided by the order of thought, regardless of the forms of expression 



SYNTAX — WORDS — SUB. AND P;1ED. UNMODIFIED. Ill 

which we speak. Again : as a foundation is not a complete building, so a 
subject alone does not form a complete sentence ; a predicate must be add- 
ed to show that something is said of the subject, thus : if we have trees 
.for the subject, we must unite with it something, ust/row, for the predicate, 
S) show what is said of trees. In the same manner wo have water Jlows^ 



SECTION I. 

SJ MPLE SENTENCES — WORDS — RELATIONS 
UNREPRESENTED. 

A simple sentence contains but one proposition ; as, " The 
crocus blooms." 

A proposition is the combination of a subject and a predi- 
cate ; as, " Virtue ennobles." 

When the parts of a sentence are placed together without 
any intervening word to show the connection, the relation is 
said to be unrepresented. 



A. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE UNMODIFIED. 

The simplest possible sentence contains only two parts — 
a subject and a predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; as, 
" The winds blow." 



The following will serve as a model : The teacher, standing at the board, says, " Wfco 
will mention something for a subject?" The pupils raise their hands — one says, 
Lamb. The teacher writes upon the board lamb. The teacher now says to the 
boy who gave the subject, " Had you in mind a particular lamb? " If so, what sign 
should we prefix? Ans. The. The teacher writes, " The lamb." Now, what have 
you to say of the lamb? What did the lamb do? t Ans. " The lamb ran." The 
teacher or some pupil asks, " What kind of lamb? " Ans. "The young lamb ran." 
The teacher asks, " What has been added to the word lamb ? " Ans. Young-. What 
kinds of lambs are excluded by it? Ans. All kinds but young ones. The teacher or 
some pupil (let the members of the class be encouraged to ask questions) asks, " How 
did he run ? " Ans. Swiftly. " The young lamb ran swiftly." What effect has the 
ucul swiftly? Ans. It shows how the lamb ran, and forbids us think. is of his 
running in any other manner than swiftly. Other questions will naturally be suggest- 
ed, such as, When, Where, or Why did he run? Let these be answered in the same 
way. The teacher will now see how he can give out a lesson which will both occupy 
and interest the whole class. He proposes, or allows the members to propose, soma 
four or five subjects; he then requires them to bring in well-written sentences, hav- 
ing something to show what kind, how many, what, when, where, or how, &x. After 
several exercises of this kind, the teacher can show the class that one word sometimes 
answers a question how, where, &c. ; at other times, two or more words are required, 
aiid thus the way is prepared for the classified examples which follow. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject 
as, " The winds hlowP 

Note. — The subject may be known by its answering the question JVho ? or What 1 
thus: Who speaks ? Ans. Susan speaks. What fell ? Ans. Apples fell. The predicate 
may be known by its answering the question, What is — — — doing ? or What does 
do 1 What does John do ? Ans. John writes, 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the subject and predicate in the following : — 
(1.) (Subject expressed.) Roses fade. Time flies. Stars shine. Chil- 
dren play. She reads. I hope. They hear. Grass grows. I live. He 
knows. We ride. God exists. Jesus wept. Fruit ripens. 

(2.) (Subject understood.) Come. Learn. Go. Study. Wait. Spell. 
Construct. Tell. See. Behold. Return. Awake. Arise. Sing. Shout. 
March. Halt. Aim. Fire. 

Supply thepaH which is warding in the following : — 

(3.) (Subject wanting.) frisk. sting. buzz. 

whisper. study. ■ open. shut. — rule. 

eat. drink. freezes. congeals. 

(4.) (Predicate wanting.) Ducks . Fishes . Mice . 

Frogs . Vapor . Dew . Zephyrs . Pines — 

Waves . Billows . lightning . Thunder . 



Supply a subject and predicate of your oxon in five examples. 

(5.) (Subject and predicate wanting,) , , &c. 

Unite the following words between the commas into sentences, and tell 
which word undergoes a change : — 

(6.) (Parts not combined.) Wind roar, queen reign, he speak, she sit, 
it snow, Peter deny, dove coo, time fly, corn ripen, sugar melt, tree bud, 
serpent hiss. 

B. SUBJECT MODIFIED. 

ORAL EXEHCISE. 

When the subject may mean any one of a great number of objects, how 
can we signify that we mean one, but not any particular one ? Ans. By 
prefixing a or an; as, a book, an apple. But when the subject may 
mean any one or more of a great number of objects, how can we signify 
that we mean some particular object or objects ? Ans. By placing the be- 
fore it, thus : the book, the apples. But does the show what particular 
books or apples are meant ? Ans. It does not ; it only shows that the 
speaker is thinking of something in particular. How can he show what 
particular thing he is thinking of ? Ans. By adding some word or words 
to describe or individualize it. (See Introduction, p.xxx.) Thus the word 
horses means ali the horses in the world ; but the phrase white horses 
means only a part of them ; the phrase, two tvhite horses, means only a 
small part of the tohite horses, while the phrase, the two white horses in yon- 
der stable, means the particular ones intended. Which of the above Italic 
cized expressions denotes the greatest number of horses? Ans. Horses, 
How did we first modify it, or limit the number? Ans. By adding 
white. What kinds of horses doss the word whit* exclude? Ans. Red 



SYNTAX WORDS COMPLEX SUBJECTS). 1 13 

frown, blacky gray, &c, horses. What docs the word ticc exclude ? Ans. 
It excludes any number greater than two. What does the expression in yon- 
der stable exclude ? Ans. Any two horses, even though they may be white, 
if found any where else than in the stable. Now, if we use hones, thus 
limited as a subject, what kind of a subject shall we have ? Ans. A modi 
fled subject. 

When the subject is described or limited by adding to it 
some other word or wo r dy, it becomes the modified subject. 
Hence, to distinguish it from the simple subject, we call it 
zhe complex or logical subject ; as, " Five birds flew." 

Here birds is the simple subject, &nd jive birds the complex subject 

A sentence having a modified subject consists of three 
parts — a subject, a predicate, and an adjective part, called 
the adjective element. 



VARIOUS KISDS OF COMPLEX SUBJECTS. 

(a.) The complex subject may be the simple subject, and 
only one added word ; as, " These trees grow." 

When one word depends upon, and limits another, the lat- 
ter is called the basis or principal element ; as, " Summed 
heat debilitates." Here heat is the basis. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following examples point out the subject and the added word. De* 
scribe the latter, and explain its modifying effect : — 

(1.) (Limiting adjectives.) This man came. Five dogs ran. One tree 
fell. The ink fades. A cat plays. Many flowers bloom. Some boys 
study. These fishes swim. Every one stands. 

(2.) (Qualifying adjectives.) Old wood bums. Wise men err. Faith- 
ful horses draw. Hot water scalds. Good scholars learn. Wicked men 
fear. Cold winter comes. 

(3.) (Nouns in apposition*) King Latinus ruled. Queen Mary reigned. 
President Taylor died. Marshal Soult conquered. Prince Eugene com- 
manded. Madame Elizabeth suffered. 

(4.) (Nowis or pronouns in the possessive case.) Mary's mother came. 
George's horse ran. Wellington's renown increased. Ellen's hope3 
vanished. Maria's journey begin? William's invention failed. His fin- 
ger bleeds Our door creaks. Her head aches. 

Add limiting xoords to the following subjects so as to form sentences coi> 
* See Model for apposition, page 31, or Rule VIL 

10* 



1 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tainitiff th ze parts — three like (1), three like (2), three like (3), and three 
uke (4). 

(5.) (Adjective element wanting.) iron melts. kitten mews. 

-rabbit leaps. men prosper. lions devour. 



letters arrive. King sang. Pro lessor studies. Doctor 

rides. — son reigned. Messiah pleases. daughters 

wept. 

Supply a stibject and adjective part for the following predicates : — 

(6.) (Subject and adjective element wanting.) — chirps. ■■ 

- crawls. fade. — ■ twinkles. 



hops. feed. - — sinned. sail. 

nourishes. teaches. — bites. 

fail. 

Combine the following elements between the commas, and tell what changes 
you must make : — 

(7.) (Elements not constructed.) Three dove coo, high school change, 
Victoria children study, Valentine day come, apple tree bloom, I country 
bleed, fair Rhine flow, pale Melancholy sit, the plum ripen, one boy go, 
six dog bark. 

Correct the following examples, and tell what words you alter : — 
(8.) (Elements incorrectly constructed.) Some people says. I knows. 
This ostriches runs. That girls sleeps. Those kind grow. Many insect 
buzzes. Little acorn grows. Six chicken dies. They hears. Boston 
Journal arrive. 

(b.) The complex subject may be the simple subject with 
two or more added words ; as, u That good ship sailed." 

Here the adjective part consists of two elements, good, which describes the ship, 
% ind that, which points out what good ship is meant 

Two cases may arise ; the added words may belong directly 
to the subject, or they may first be added to each other, form- 
ing a complex adjective element, and then be joined as a com- 
bination to the subject, forming a complex subject ; as, 
■" Those old soldiers suiTered.'" " Very large supplies 
arrived." 



Case 1. Added words pined directly to the subject* 
EXERCISES, 

Point out the added words in the following examples, and explain ihe%? 
sffcct: — 

(1.) (Two limiting adjectives.) The first dawn appeared. The two travel- 
lers returned. This second class recites. The three Horatii fought. The 
twelve Caesars reigned. Many a gem sparkles. Such an assertion startles. 

( 2 . ) ( One limiting and on e qualifying adjective.) That popular sovereign 
defended. The old boiler burst. Every new lesson puzzles. The caloric 
ship sails. Any good book instructs Several old houses fell. 



SYNTAX — WORDS — SUBJECT MODIFIED. 115 

(3.) (Two limiting adject ire- end one qualifying one.) The first pleasant 
day came. Those two young men contended. Many a serious thought 
arose. Every third division remained. 

(4.) ( One limiting and two qualifying adject ires.) Those bright, happy 
children play. The old, sad memory comes. The little feathered songster 
warbles. That ambitious young man excels. 

(5.) (An adjective with the noun in apposition.) The empress Eugenie 
reigns. The apostle Paul preached. The c&artyr Stephen died. This boy 
George repents. 

(6.) (A noun or pronoun in the possessive, a?id,c noun in apposition.) 
His daughter Sarah dances. Isaac's son Jacob deceived. Elizabeth's 
cousin Mary suffered. Christ's disciple Judas betrayed. 

Put the proper tcords in the following blanks : — 

(7.) (A limiting and a qualifying adjective, and a subject wanting.) 

blows. fades. — 



howls. crows, cut, 

(8. \ (A noun in the possessive, and a noun in apposition wanting.) 

teacher approves. — — — son married. sister 

travelled. daughter wrote. student — practised. 



Case II. Added words joined to each other, and then joined 
to the subject, complex adjective element. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the words which are added to each other, and explain their effect 
upon each other, and their combined effect upon the subject. 

(1.) (An adverb added to an adjective.) Very strange reports arose. 
Exceedingly heavy rains fell. Dearly-beloved friends depart. A truly 
great man appeared. 

(2.) ( Adjectives and nouns in the possessive.) The old man's daughter 
awoke. The huntsman's horn aroused. The bright sun's rays illumine. 
The wild wind's roar alarms. 

(3.) (Adjectives and nouns in apposition.) Bunyan, the distinguished 
avthor, composed. Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, declaimed. Frank- 
lin, the American ambassador, negotiated. Arnold, the base traitor, 
escaped. 

(4.) (A noun in the possessive, and a noun in apposition.) Victoria, Eng 
land's queen, defends. Elizabeth, Henry's daughter, delayed. George 
Ellen's teacher, instructed. Peter, Christ's disciple, denied. 

Supply the proper words in the following blanks : — 

(5. ) (Adjective and noun in the possessive wanting.) — — sword 

*lew. mate mourned. crash frightened 

clerk absconded. 

(6.) (Adjective and noun in apposition wanting.) Dav:'d 

lepented. Solomon prayed. Daniel reposed. 

Moses defended. Miriam sang. Bancroft 

■ narrates. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

€. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

If I say, " The boy opened," and should stop there without saying any 
thing more, what question would you naturally ask ? Ans. What did he 
open ? Will you mention any thing that he might open ? Ans. A book, a 
knife, a box, a door, his eyes, his hands, his mouthy a letter, a window, an 
umbrella. Now, if we should add to opened either of these words, it would 
restrict its application to that one, thus : " The boy opened the door" 
What does the word door exclude ? Ans. Book, knife, &c. Now, when a 
word is joined to a transitive verb so as to limit its meaning by answering 
the question what f it is called the object or objective element, and the predi- 
cate becomes a modified predicate. So, again, if I should say, " The boy 
runs," what would you ask, if you wished to know where he was running ? 
Ans. Where does he run ? Right ; and I should answer, pointing, He 
runs yonder. In a similar manner you may answer the question, When 
does he run ?- How does he run ? When a word is added to a predicate 
restricting its meaning, and answering the questions Where f W^hsr, f Why f 
or How ? it is called an adverb, or an adverbial element, and the predicate 
becomes a modified predicate. 

When the predicate is described or limited by adding to it some other 
word or words, it becomes the modified predicate. Hence, to distinguish 
it from the simple predicate, we call it the complex or logical predicate ; 
as, " They found gold." 

Heie ) fou?id is the simple predicate, and found gold the logical predicate. 
A sentence having a modified predicate consists of at least three parts, 
a subject, a predicate, and an additional part called either the objective or 
the adverbial element. 



VARIOUS KINDS OF COMPLEX PREDICATES. 

(a.) The complex predicate may be the simple predicate 
and only one added word ; as, " The refiner purifies silver" 

EXERCISES. 

Point out in the following examples the predicate and the added word ; 
describe the latter, and explain its modifying effect : — 

(1.) (Objective element.) They pared apples. Henry gathered hazel 
nuts. Sarah found violets. He killed mice. John sold matches. George 
melted lead. Mary bGiled chestnuts. 

(2.) (Adverbial element — place.) She dwells there. Who comes here ? 
The shadow moved backwards. The tkimble lies somewL :re. She resides* 
/onder. You may come up. The child sits down. 

(%.) (Adverbial element — time.) I hope always. Anna arrived yester- 
day. She often yields. You change continually; I hear frequently. He 
tomes occasionally. He rides now. 

(4.) (Adverbial element — cause.) Why came ye ? Wherefore ask you ? 

(5.) (Adverbial element — manner.) She played finely. The cam 
r aign opened vigorously. The cars run rapidly. The eagle soared proud 
Ey. The owl screeches mournfully. The curtains hang gracefully. 



I 



SYNTAX — PREDICATE MODIFIEI. 117 

Add limiting words to the following predicates so as to form sentences 
i Villaining three parts : — 

(6.) (Subject and object wanting.) seal- • . devours 

1 J denied . whipped . drank 

. tied . ploughed . reaped' 

1 caught . admits . command- 



ed 



(7.) (Verb and adverb wanting.) Wolves . Bears 

. Signs . Vultures . Crocodiles 

-. Hyenas . Wheat . Rye — 



Steamboats - 

Combine the following elements betxoeen the. commas, and tell what change* 
you must make : — 

(8.) (Elements ntft constructed.) Sarah help I, Frank play ball, John 
strike she, Child gather moss, Ink fmger stain, Rain wet ground, 
Shower revive plant, Dust cover coat, Cloud obscure sun, Judge sen- 
tence he, He climb tree. 

(b.) The complex predicate may be the simple predicate 
with two or more added words ; as, " He examined them 
critically" 

Here the predicate examined receives two additions, them and critically. The com- 
plex predicate consists, therefore, of the simple predicate and two added words. 

Here, as in the subject, two cases may arise ; the added 
words may belong directly to the predicate, or they may first 
be added to each other, forming a complex objective or a 
complex adverbial element, and then be joined to the predi- 
cate, forming a complex predicate ; as, " He wrote elegant 
letters" " She walked very slowly" 

Case I. Added ivords joined directly to the predicate. 
EXERCISES. 

Point out the added words in the following examples, and explain their 
effect ; — 

(1.) (Two objective elements.) Give me flowers. They lent him money. 
They made him king. I wrote him letters. She taught me geography. 
He appointed John monitor. They called him George. 

(2.) (Objective and adverbial elements.) They planted seeds there. They 
raised corn abundantly. He attends lectures constantly. The master 
taught him skilfully. He never found it. He now eats meat. The Bible 
teaches truth impressively. He utters subvocals distinctly. 

Fill the foHowing blanks with appropriate words : — 

(3.) (Subject and predicate wanting.) The skilfully. He 

— beautifully. Napoleon triumphantly. Kos 

*uth eloquently. The lady exquisitely. The 

dock — now. He seldom . She often — — — 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(4.) {Subject and adverb wanting.) — ■ caught fish. . — — • 

sold books . spent money . struck William 

. gathered strawberries . cultivated trees 

— — . mowed grass tended sheep ■ 

dressed vines — . — sawed wood ■• — — - hunted deer 

Combine the following elements between the commas, and tell what changes 
you must make : — 

(5.) {Elements not constructed.') Clergyman preach forcible sermon, 
Widely open gate porter the, Carriage coachman drive rapidly, Boy gun 
carelessly handle, Poetry often wrote she, Hear occasionally music they, 
Carpenter saw suddenly break. 

Case II. Added words joined to each other ^ and then joined 
to the predicate — complex objective and complex adverbial 
elements. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the words which are added to each other y and explain their com- 
lined effect upon the predicate : — 

(1.) {Adjective added to the object.) He lived a desolate life. They 
found agreeable companions. The merchant sold damaged goods. The 
Bailor climbed the slippery mast. The vessel reached the desired haven. 
The islands yield delicious spices. The lady wrought a beautiful divan. 
The teacher received a handsome present. 

(2.) {Possessive case and object.) She recognized Henry's voice. Helen 
read the Dairyman's Daughter. The boy heeded his father's advice. He 
hurt his ringer. She lent her scissors. They kept their work. We rented 
our house. I lost my knife. They felt Fortune's frown. 

(3.) {Object and noun in opposition.) They burned Huss the reformer. 
They executed Andre the spy. They read Chaucer the poet. They 
obeyed William the Conqueror. Herod beheaded John the Baptist. 

(4.) (An adverb added to an adverb.) She hears very imperfectly. He 
performs more skilfully. They go too often. She sews very neatly. K# 
managed most adroitly. 

Fill the following blanks with appropriate words : — 

(5.) {Object and adjective omitted.) He refused — . He sough* 

He drove — . The merchant kept - 



The captain commanded . The clerk transcribed - 



The legislature passed . The committee appointed 



(6.) {Complex object and adverb wanting.) The lawyer argued - 

. The physician healed — . The company insured - 

The president issued . He burned ■ 



The shoemaker hammered — — — — . The carpenter planed - 



O. SUBJECT AKD PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

The subject and predicate of a sentence may both be 
modified at the same time 5 forming a complex subject and 



SYNIAX — PHRASES RELATIONS REPRESENTED. 119 

a complex predicate ; as, u Refreshing showers soon revived 
the drooping plants." 

We may thus have a sentence consisting of jive parts or 
elements — a subject, a predicate, an adjective element, an 
objective element, and an adverbial element. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the five elements in the following sentences, and tell whether 
they are simple or complex : — 

The distinguished historian Xenophon skilfully conducted the dangeious 
retreat. Leonidas, the brave Spartan hero, gallantly defended the narrow 
pass. Cornelia, the noble lloman. matron, proudly called her sons her 
lewels. Socrates, the Grecian philosopher, calmly drank the poisonous 
nemlock. 

Add to the following subjects and predicates any elements which will render 
them complex ; also construct entire sentences having five elements : — 

The fire burns. The cloud obscured. The planets revolve. The sun 
attracts. The moon has. The mines yield. The Scriptures afford. 



SECTION II. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES —PHRASES — RELATIONS 
REPRESENTED. 

When the parts of a sentence are brought together with 
an intervening word to show a connection, the relation is 
said to be represented ; as, " The flag of the Union was 
floating in the breeze." 

Here the relation of floating to flag (predicate relation) is represented by was; that 
of Union to flag (adjective relation) is represented by of; that of breeze to floating (ad- 
verbial relation) is represented by in. 

The connective and word following it constitute an ele- 
ment or component part of the sentence ; as, " To steal 
(sub.) is base" (pred.) Hence an element with its relation 
expressed is a phrase consisting, in its simplest state, of two 
words ; and in order to distinguish it from an element of the 
first class, which consists of only one word, the relation be- 
ing implied, it is called a phrase, or element of the m#hH 
class. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — When to, for, or that, introduces the subject, it can have no an- 
fcecedert term on which to depend, since the subject is that on which all 
other parts depend. Hence it is scarcely correct to say that to, for, or 
that, in such uses, shows a relation, although each is a relation-word ; as, 
" To err is human." " For you to deceive is surprising." " That you 
should deceive is surprising." 



A. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE NOT MODIFIED. 

Here, again, the simplest possible sentence contains only 
two parts — a subject and a predicate. 

When the unmodified subject consists of two words, it must 
be the infinitive, or first form . of the verb, with " to " pre- 
fixed ; as, " To deceive is criminal." 

When the unmodified predicate consists of two parts, it is 
composed of the copula (link or connective) and the attribute. 
The attribute may be either a participle, an adjective, or a 
noun or pronoun in the nominative. 

In the predicate two classes of relations should be distin- 
guished, (1.) A predicate relation expressed by the copula. 
or some copulative verb, (Rem. 5, p. 53.) and (2.) A rela- 
tion of time and mode expressed either by the form of the 
verb, or by some auxiliary; as, " We were successful." 
" We shall have written." 

Note. — When the attribute is an adjective, a noun, or an active or passive parti 
ciple, the former relation is shown by the copula, and the latter by the various forma 
of the copula ; as, " He toa3 activ r e, has been active, may have been active," &c. 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the subject and predicate in the following examples, and show 
which has a connective : — 

L Only one Connective, 

(1.) {Subject having a connective.) To love exalts. To exercise strength. 
ens. To walk invigorates. To forgive ennobles. 

(2.) (Attribute having a connective — participle.) The boat is approach- 
ing. The fruit was destroyed. The ceremony was performed. The prunet 
were purchased. Her health is improving. Night is coming. Hopes 
were frustrated. Imagination was painting. Property was inherited 
Estates are entailed. Science is progressing. 

(3.^ (Attribute an adjective.) Medicine is nauseous. Coffee is fragrant. 



SYNTAX SUBJEC'I AND PREDICATE NOT MODIFIED. 121 

Oranges are delicious. Games are pleasant. Questions are hard. Heat 
is oppressive. Appearances are deceitful. Scholars arc docile. Study is 
delightful. Geometry is difficult. Teachers are faithful. Mines are 
dark. 

(4.) [Attribute, a noun or pronoun.) Gold is a metal. It is I. Otho is 
a king. He is the superintendent. You are my brother. Mary is hei 
cousin. He is our physician. The gentleman is a politician. Dickens is 
an author. It is she. He is a merchant. Ireland is an island. Aspin- 
wall is a city. Panama is an isthmus. 

(5.) (Copulative verbs, page 53.) He seems inattentive. She was es- 
teemed a lady. General Pierce is elected president. He became poor. 
The ore is called silver. I walk a queen. Aristides was called the Just. 
Pisistratus was called a tyrant. Moses was esteemed faithful. The prop- 
osition remains true. 

Give the mode and tense of the following predicates, and explain the use 
of the auxiliaries, then change them to other modes and tenses : — 

(6.) (Simple relations of time and mode.) They have written. He may 
come. Stop. You have returned. I went. She will play. They may 
attend. It will be. You can reply. I have heard. I study. You re- 
ceived. They might have known. I have exercised. We will promise. 
If he had thought. It can be done. He expelled. You will record. 
He bade. We walked. You might have been riding. 

Point out the copula and attribute, and give the mode and tense of the 
copula : — 

(7.) (Predicate relation, and relations of time and mode combined.) He 
may have been sick. You have been rich. That may be true. The story 
is false. Knowledge is power. It would have been wise. He should have 
been rewarded. It will have been finished. The relation is sustained. 
You were angry. The truth must be acknowledged. The man was wick- 
ed. It must be the same. He is alive. She will have been esteemed 
good. 

(8.) (Subject omitted.) Be active. Be industrious. Be a man. Become 
wise. Appear calm. Remain standing. Be kind. 

Fill the following blanks with appropriate words : — 

(9.) (Subject wanting.) is sitting. — is a scholar. 

is delayed. are mended. was pleasant. • should be 

writing. was grateful. is freighted. has been neg- 
lected. is fulfilled. had been allowed. will be man- 
ufactured. may be lost. 

(10.) (Attribute wanting.) David was . Thou art . The 

vessel would have been — . The cargo was . The port will be 

. The harbor is . The freight is . The machinery was 

. The lifeboat was . The passengers had been . The 

state rooms would have been . The wheelhouse was . The 

berths are . The waiters will be . 

(11.) ( Copxda wanting.) The wind boisterous. The rocks 

dangerous. The danger- unheeded. The storm terrible. The 

pumps leaking. The waves mountain high. Hope 

abandoned. They clinging. Many despairing. No one 

left. All quiet. The sea peaceful. They 

lost. Friends mourning. 

(12.) (Subject and attribute wanting.) might have been . 

was . is . could have been — . 

must have oeen . wert . wast — , 

li 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



art ■ will be — . will have been - 



bidered 



would have been regarded . might hai e been con 



II. Two Connectives. 



x 13.) {Subject an infinitive.) To err is human. To forgive is divine. 
To lie is wicked. To cheat is mean. To tattle is disgraceful To betray 
is infamous. 

(14.) {The last examples changed.) It is human to err, &c. 

(15.) {Predicate an infinitive or preposition and noun.) His expectation 
is to ride. Her hope is to return. Her desire is to leave. The child is in 
good health. The pupil is without books. The lady is in sorrow. 



III. Three Connectives. 

(16.) {Subject and predicate infinitives.) To pilfer is to steal. To love 
is to obey. To pray is to supplicate. To be good is to be happy. 



B. SUBJECT MODIFIED. 

The subject may be modified, — 

(1.) By a single element — a phrase. 

(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a phrase. 

When the unmodified adjective element consists of two 
words, it is either an infinitive, or a phrase composed of a 
preposition, (connective,) and its object. The object is either 
a noun, pronoun, or participle in the objective. 

We have here, as in Section I., two cases : first, when both 
elements are added directly to the subject ; and second, when 
they are first added to each other, and then added to the sub- 
ject, forming a complex adjective element. 

If the basis or principal element is of the first class, the 
complex element is of the first class, whatever the additions 
to it may be. So, again, if the basis is of the second class, 
the entire complex element is of the second class. 

Rem. — When two elements are added together, three cases may occur 
The first, that is, the basis, or principal element, may have a connective, 
and the second may have none ; the second may have a connective, and 
the basis none ; both may have a connective ; as, " The hope of great 
wealth." " William, Prince of Orange." " A collection or books oj 
travels." In the second example, "William" is modified by a complex 
adjective element of the first class, because " prince," the basis, is joined 
to " William A without a connective. In the first example, r< hope " ii 



SYNTAX — TIIRASES — ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 123 

modified by a complex adjective element of the second class, because t)ie 
basis " of wealth " has its connection represented by " of." To this is 
added an element of the first class, " great." In the third example, both 
the basis and its dependent element are of the second class. 

An element is said to be transformed, when it is changed 
from one form or class to another ; as, " The dews of the 
morning have passed away "= The morning dews have 
Dussed away. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the adjective element in the following examples, and explain the 
cemplex subject : — 

I. Only one Added Element. 

(1.) (One adjective element — a phrase.) Statues of marble were chis- 
elled. Works on history were consulted. Men of science have appeared. 
Days of fasting were appointed. Bouquets of flowers were presented. 
Fields of grain rere waving. 

(2.) (Adfectiur elements of Exercise, (1.) transformed.) Marble statues 
were chiselled, J ;. 



II. Two on More Added Elements. 
Case I. Both elements added directly to the subject. 

(3.) (Two or more adjective elements of different classes.) The laws of 
England were established. The first settlers at Plymouth were called Puri- 
tans. The great bard of Avon sleeps. Huge waves of the ocean over- 
whelmed. Many men of distinction arose. 

(4.) (The adjective element of the last exercise transformed.) The Eng- 
lish laws were established, &c. 

In the following transform the adjective element of the first to an adjective 
element of the second class : — 

(5.) (Adjective element transformed.) Brazen hinges were made = 
Hinges of brass were made. Solomon's temple was destroyed. A teacher's 
meeting was held. The lecturer's voice was heard. The convent's gates 
closed. New year's day has passed. An hour's delay occurred. The 
shepherd's dog barks. The huntsman's horn resounds. 

Add to the following subjects an adjective element of the second class, and 
then change it to one of the first : — 

(6.) (Adjective element wanting.) Men were appointed. The 

resemblance was striking. The office was closed. The fate 

was unknown. Men will be rewarded. Gems were 

found. The voice was heard. The truth was corroborated, 

The size was great. The morals improved. 



*24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Case II. Added elements joined to each other ~ complex 
adjective elements. 

Point out the complex adjective element in the following, and describe 
it: — 

(7.) {Basis or principal element of the first class — added element of the 
second.) Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was imprisoned. An army, 
confident of success, is invincible. Peter, moved by the Spirit, became 
fearless. The duke, the general of the allied army, was distinguished. 
Hortense, the daughter of Josephine, was beautiful. The maiden, the 
beauty of the village, was chosen. George, the elder of the brothers, won 
the prize. 

( 8. ) ( Principal element of the second, — added one of the first. ) A disease 
of great malignity prevailed. A king of great distinction succeeded. The 
father of the lost prince never smiled. The man of many sorrows lived. 
The wind of the winter night moaned. The sufferings of the beautiful 
child were ended. The grave of little Nelly was visited. Flowers of 
many hues were described. 

(9.) (Both elements of the second class.) Jewels of gold from California 
were made. An observation of the sun in the meridian was taken. The 
brother of Richard I. of England reigned. A king of the house of Bruns- 
wick was insane. A jailer of the dauphin of France was named Simon. 
The friend of the son of the king was pardoned. 

(10.) Fill the following blanks with the appropriate complex elements : — 
The genius — demands it. The diamonds spar- 
kle. The treasures were seized. The jealousy 

was annoying. The parents were unknown. The bells 

■ were chiming. The analysis was perspicuous. The 



grass ■ 



C. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

The predicate may be modified, — 

(1.) By a single phrase, (preposition and object.) 

(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a phrase. 

The simple objective or adverbial element when a phrase 
is either an infinitive, or is composed of a preposition and its 
object. 

We have here, as in Section I., two cases: first, when 
both elements are added directly to the predicate ; and second, 
when they are first added to each other, and then added to 
the predicate, forming a complex objective, or a complex ad 
verbial element. 



SYNTAX — ADDED ELEMENTS. 12b 



EXERCISES. 

Point oict the complex predicate in the following examples, and explain 
ike effect of the added elements : — 

I. Only one Added Element. 

(1.) {Objective element,* direct.) He hoped to succeed. She desired to 
write. They wished to do right. He seeks to excel. You are expected 
to attend. I am trying to learn. She means to obey. I hope to travel. 
The watch needs to be repaired. They like to travel. She wills to do it. 
The book deserves to be read. The man ought to be imprisoned. 

(2.) {Objective element, indirect.) I spoke to him. We heard of his suc- 
cess. They gave it to the church. Speak to him. They know of the 
ipportunity. 

(3.) {Adverbial element — place.) She came to the party. The plums fell 
from the tree. The bail lay on the hearth. Anna sat in the carriage. His 
thoughts were concentrated on the subject. The letter was found in the 
post office. The express will come from New York. The cucumbers are 
abundant on the vines. 

(4.) {Adverbial element — time.) In the morning it flourisheth. I shall 
go in the evening. It will be finished in a fortnight. Caesar fought on 
the next day. The book will be finished in four weeks. Come on 
Tuesday. 

(5.) {Adverbial element — cause.) She cried from fear. We remained to 
hear the report. The man suffered from poverty. The children were 
speechless from delight. Christ was betrayed for money. Tne party were 
travelling for pleasure. The martyrs suffered for Christ's sake. 

(6.) {Adverbial element — manner.) The dove flew with rapidity. The 
messenger came in haste. He writes with accuracy. The world was made 
by him. James walked with his sister. The Greeks succeeded by strata- 
gem. Milk is good for children. She was diffident to excess. Emily 
was delighted with her present. 



II. Two on More Added Elements. 
Case I. Both elements added directly to the predicate. 

(7.) {Two direct objects , one first and one second class.) He urged him 
to go. He sought friends to help him. The doves besought the hawk to 
defend them. Martha invited Emily to visit her. I saw the rain [to] fall. 
He bade me tell you. Let us sit. They made the man labor. 

(8.) {Direct object, first class, indirect second.) George gave a book to 
me. Charles told him of his father's death. He begged a favor of me. 
Mary brought a present to me. He taught writing to me. Send the 
bracelet to me. You may throw the ball to me. You promised a reward 
to the best scholar. They played games for us. I lent a book to father. 

Note. — Let the pupil rewrite these examples, and place the indirect object first, 
and dispense with the preposition, thus : "I lent father a book." 

(9.) {Objective of the first, adverbial of the second class.) "We heard their 
songs in the grove. We left our home in the morning. You wrote the 

* See Rule VIII. — Rem. 1. 
11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

letter to hasten Ms coining. They learned to sing in their childhood. We 
gathered the wild flowers in the meadow. He made the effort for thei? 
good. He taught the Bible class with great earnestness. 

FiU the following blanks with appropriate adverbial elements of time, place, 
cause, or manner : — 

( 10. ) ( Adverbial element wanting. ) The kangaroo lives . A treaty 

of peace was concluded . The consul resides . They wished 

to go . The cars will arrive . The visit was anticipated . 

My dear friend came . Cornwallis surrendered . He man- 
aged . Past events were recalled . The young lady was ad- 
mired ■ — . I have been here . The work must be completed 

. We were sitting . The horse ran . 



Case II. The elements added to each other. 

(11.) {Objective first class, adjective seco?id.) I found masses of rock. 
They made a fire of coals. They elected a professor of history. She threw 
the apple of discord. They asked the son of Priam. He awarded the prize 
of beauty. He tended the flocks of sheep. He admired the beauty of 
Helen. 

(12.) {Indirect objective second, adjective second.) The book was given to 
the chairman of the committee. He wrote to the friend of his sister. He 
sought for the truth of the report. The arrangement was made for the 
child of my brother. 

(13.) (Infinitive and* adverbial, first or second.) He desires to write elegant- 
ly. They attempted to remain at home. He seems to sleep quietly. Chil- 
dren love to change constantly. We hope to see clearly. I hope to write 
with great diligence. I wish to return in two years. We strive always to 
excel. He loves to rise with the early dawn. 

(14.) (Adverbial second, adjective first.) The bear came from a dense for- 
est. The child returned after a long absence. The governor departed for his 
southern tour. The experiments were made in a mysterious manner. The 
room was filled with the sweet perfume. He departed in the early morn- 
ing. The fruit must be gathered before next week. 

(15.) (Adverbial second, adjective second.) Moses stood on the sumnut of 
Pisgah. The city was situated at the head of the bay. We left on the 
morning of the new year. The Bible was translated by men of learning. 
Napoleon was banished to the Island of St. Helena. We sailed around the 
Island of Juan Fernandez. I stood on the steps of the Capitol. 

Construct sentences of your own illustrating any of the above elements * 



B. SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE MODIFIED. 

A sentence may contain a subject and a predicate, each 
modified in any of the above ways. 



* The teacher should multipJv and vary these exercises according to the \?<mts a* 
the learner 



SYNTAX COMPLEX SENTENCES CLAUSES, ETC. 127 



EXERCISES. 

Povvt Old the subject and predicate^ and point out the various modification* 
in the following : — 

The news of his death filled his mother's heart with sorrow. To be- 
come an admiral was Nelson's noble resolution in his childhood. It is the 
work of a lifetime to become truly good. The children of my brother have 
come to visit me. The son of the king succeeded to the throne. The 
authorship of the book has never been ascertained with certainty. 

Add elements to the following subjects and predicates, so as to illustrate 
any of the foregoing cases : — 

The watch was given . He attempts . She manages . 

William brought . Lucy sought . The pigeon flew . 

He remained . We spoke . Mary came . Grass grows 

. Come . Robert seems -. They love . The 

three women . Peter denied . John learned . Thou 

gavest . Ruth was . The storm caused . 

The church has been built . My sister came . 

The news was received . The minister has gone . 

The time is coming . 



SECTION III. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES — CLAUSES — RELA- 
TIONS REPRESENTED. 

The propositions which unite to form a sentence are called 
its clauses ; as, " The wicked flee — when no man pur- 
sueth ; but the righteous are bold — -as a lion [is.] " 

A proposition standing alone, or not affected by a connec- 
tive, is a simple sentence, " Vice degrades." 

A proposition under the influence of a subordinate con- 
nective is called a subordinate or dependent proposition or 
clause ; as, " When spring comes, the flowers will bloom." 

Here, " when spring corn's " is a subordinate proposition. The subordinate connec- 
tive when changes the simple sentence "spring comes" to a mere element ot the 
other proposition to which it is joined. And as it is made to take the place of an ad- 
verb of time, it is called ah adverbial proposition. 

The proposition on which the subordinate one depends is 
called the principal proposition or clause ; as," When spring 
comes, the flowers will bloom" 

An entire sentence, consisting of a principal and a 



128 ENGLISH GRA f MAR. 

subordinate clause, is called a complex sentence ; as, " I will 
remain until you return." 

The dependent proposition, consisting of the connective 
and the subject and predicate following it, constitutes an ele- 
ment or component part of the complex sentence. It is 
called an element of the third class, to distinguish it frcm 
those of the other two classes. 

When the subordinate clause takes the place of a noun, 
it is called a substantive clause ; when it takes the place of 
an adjective, it is called an adjective clause ; when it takes 
the place of an adverb, it is called an adverbial clause. 



A. SENTENCES HAVING A SUBJECT AND PREDI- 
CATE ONLY. 

A sentence may have for its subject, or for the attribute 
in the predicate, a dependent proposition ; as, " That the 
earth revolves on its axis has been proved." " My hope is, 
that you will recover your losses ." 



EXERCISES. 

(1.) {The subject a substantive clause.) That you have wronged me 
doth appear. Who wrote Junius's letters is uncertain. Why he left the 
city is a mystery. When the assembly will rise is unknown. Where the 
villain has gone has been ascertained. How shall we escape ? is the 
question. 

(2.) (The attribute a substantive clause.) My desire is, that you may 
succeed. His pretence was, that the stomi of the preceding evening pre" 
vented his attendance. Our hope is, that no such results will follow. 
Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed the mountain. My determina- 
tion is, that you shall attend school in the country. 

Fill the blanks loiih appropriate clauses in the following ;— - 

(3.) (Subject wanting.) is apparent. cannot be denied. 

is desirable. is deplorable. is determined. is 

belief ed. ■ — is amusing. is undesirable. is unac- 
countable. 

I:.. — Let the learner change these examples and those in Exercise 
v using "it" as an introductory word to the sentence, placing the 
iubject after the predicate, thus : " It doth appear that you have wronged 
me." 



SYNTAX CLAUSES — SUBJECT MODIFIED. 129 

(4.) (Attribute wanting.) My determination is . His decision 

w?.s . Her complaint was . Our hope is . Their ex- 
pectation is . The remark was . The suggestion is — « 



B. SUBJECT MODIFIED. 

The subject may be modified, — 
(1.) By a single subordinate clause. 
(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a clause. 
We have here, as before, — 

Case L Where both elements are added directly to tkz 
subject. 

Case II. Where the elements are added together, and then 
added to the subject, forming a complex adjective element. 

Rem. — When two or more elements are added together, a variety of 
cases may occur. The basis may be a single word ; this may be modified 
by a phrase; this again by a clause; as, " The pear, frdit from a tree 
which he had grafted, was found most delicious." Some seven or eight 
other combinations may take place. These can easily be formed by chan- 
ging the order of the elements. 



EXERCISES. 

I. Only one Added Element. 

Point out the adjective clauses in the following examples : — 
(1.) (Added element, an adjective clause.) Evils which cannot be cured, 
must be endured. Rays which fall perpendicularly upon the earth, are 
called vertical. Lines which are drawn parallel to each other, will never 
meet. Money which is easily acquired is, for the most part, easily spent. 
Who steals my purse, steals trash. Whatever is, is right. Whoever sins, 
must suffer. 

Transform the adjective clauses in the above exercises. 

(2.) (Adjective element transformed.) Incurable evils must be endured. 
Rays falling , &c. 



II. Two or More Added Elements. 
Case I. Added elements joined directly to the subject. 

(3.) (Adjective, and adjective clause.) That lesson which caused him sc 
much trouble, has since been mastered. The missing vessel, which he 
looked for so anxiously, has at last arrived. The unwearied pains which 
ne took to accomplish 1 is plans, insured their success. The distant land 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which he discovered, was rich in mineral wealth. The bright sun, which 
foretells warmer weather, comes nearer to us in his course. The parlor 
tire, which burns so brightly, gives a cheerful light. 
Transform the above adjective clauses. 

(4.) {Adjective clause transformed.) That troublesome lesson has since 
been mastered, &c. 

Convert the following adjective elements in Italics into clauses : — - 
(5.) (Adjective element transformed.) Trees growing at the foot of the 
mountain sue taller than those on the summit. A persevering man will 
overcome obstacles. The promised rewards shall be given. A discontent- 
ed man cannot be happy. The great globe is only a planet. Milton, the 
poet, was blind. The house of my father stands near the road. My 
brother's dog was killed. Honorable men presided. 

Fill the blanks in the following examples with adjective clauses : — 

(6.) (Adjective clause wanting.) The journey was delightful. The 

opinion seems to prevail. The reason has never been satis- 
factorily given. The man — desires to please. Cicero was put 

to death. Socrates was a great philosopher. The scholar ■ 

should be commended. The pride is contemptible. A man — 

will be rewarded. The tabernacle — r— — contained the ark. 



Case II. Added elements joined to each other - — complex 
adjective element. 

Point out the compjlex adjective element in the following examples, and 
explain its parts ; — 

(7.) (The basis an element of the first class.) Thucydides, living when 
Pericles did, wrote a history of that splendid era. Peter the Hermit, who 
preached the first crusade, was a native of Amiens, in France. The phy- 
sician, knowing that his advice was needed, hastened to visit his patient. 
The agent, suspicious that all was not right, examined the matter closely. 

(8.) ( The basis an element of the second.) The reply of the queen who came 
to prove the wisdom of Solomon was, that the half had not been told her. 
A desire to dwell where her mother-in-law dwelt induced Ruth to follow 
Naomi. The hope of Esther, who was the beautiful queen of Ahasuerus, 
was to save the Jewish nation. The mother of Samuel, who was devoted 
to the service of the Lord, brought him each year a little coat. The dreams 
of Joseph, who was the favorite son of Jacob, were the occasion of much 
ill will. 

(9.) (One of the first, one of the second, and one of the third.) The bird, 
singing on the tree which stands in the garden, fills the air with its melody. 
The boy, eager to stand where he could witness the show, fell from the roof. 
The plan, changed in the manner which we have described, was unsatisfac- 
tory to the architect. The friend, coming at a time which was unexpected, 
was cordially received. 

(10.) (Tico of the third.) The stream which flows from the mountain 
range that bounds the valley on the east, takes its name from an early 
custom of the inhabitants. JEneas, who resided in Troy until it was de- 
stroyed by the Greeks, is said to have sailed to Italy. The ten command- 
ments, which were given to Moses when he was upon the mount, were 
written on tables of stone. Cecrops, who founded Athens, to which after- 
wards Solon gave laws, is said to h we been an Egyptian. 



YNTAX CLAUSES PREDICT R MODIFIED. 131 

C. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

The predicate may be modified, — - 

(1.) By a single clement of the third class. 

(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is of the third class. 
We have here, as before, — 

Case I. Where both elements are added directly to the 
predicate. 

Case II. Where they are added together, and then added 
to the predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Only one Added Element. 

Point out the complex predicate in the following examples^ and explain the 
effect of the added clause : — 

(1.) {Substantive clause — objective.) Will you tell why you are sad? 
He inquired, " Who knocks at the door ? " Do you know that you have 
injured your friend ? I thought that he was sincere. Many suppose that 
the planets are inhabited. He showed me wherein I had done wrong. 

Fill the following blanks with substantive clauses in the objective : — 

(2.) (Objective clause wanting.) He heard — . The insane imagine 

. Who said ? You may explain . The Stoics believe 

The ancients believed . I forgot . I wish ■ 



He announced . The good ask — . The farmer declared . 

Transform the following words in Italics into objective clauses : — 

(3.) (Object transformed.) I do not remember the time of the lecture. 

Show the manner of its operation. Will you tell the object of this meeting f 

We asked him to stay. The ancients beiieved the earth to be a vast plain. 

He anticipated a pleasant evening. Did you hear of his success t The 

general commanded the army to be in readiness. 

Thus % I do not remember when the lecture will take place. 

(4.) (Adverbial clause — place.) Where your treasure is, there will youi 
heart be also. Where thou goest, I will go. Whither I go, ye canno* 
come. As far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed oui 
transgressions from us. They were sitting where the branches of a spread 
ing elm protected them from the burning rays of the noonday sun. 

Fill the following blanks with adverbial clauses denoting place : — 

(5.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) , 'tis haunted, holy ground. I 

travelled . , there is no transgression. nothing can be 

magnanimous. The soldier stopped . I will go ■ — . We must 

follow . He sank to repose . 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

^6.) (Adverbial cfciuss — time.) We talked earnestly, as we were talking 
together. While I wa3 musing, the fire burned. When two lines cross 
each other, the opposite angles are equal. The truth of the theorem will 
be acknowledged when you have proved it. I will write until he returns 
I was sad when I thougnt of the changes that must come. Whilst 1 live, 
I will bless thy name. 

Fill the following blanks with clauses denoting time : — 

(7.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) You may go . We should assist 

the poor . He will return . I "understood as a child . 

She sits . I was pained — . The company separated — . 

Supper was ready . They rejoiced . 

(8.) (Adverbial clause — cause.) Ye shall not see me, because I go unto 
my Father. You should honor your parents, for this is the command of 
God. Cultivate agreeable manners, since these make you attractive. If 
you will read the report, you can judge for yourself. Should he stay 
late, I shall regret it. I have brought the work, that you may see it I 
went myself, that I might ascertain the truth We should take exercise, 
that we may be healthy. Though it was i,old, the walk was pleasant. 
Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. I love him, not- 
withstanding he is in error. 

Fill the following blanks with clauses denoting cause : — 

(9.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) The children sing . Many men 

live idly . He is a useful man . Take heed . We have 

no other means . Water will become ice . The plants will 

not grow . I will cut down this tree . Love your enemies 

. I shall stay at home . I shall see him . Will you 

answer my letter ? How old would he have been ? 

Note. — It will be well for the teacher to give adverbial clauses of different kinds, 
and require the pupil to write, or give orally, a suitable principal clause, thus : Give 
a suitable principal clause for the following: "When the storm has subsided." 
" We shall leave when^ &,c 

(10.) (Adverbial clause — manner.) The traveller was so weary that he 
fell asleep. Speak as you think. You may do as you said you should. 
Mary is as old as her cousin. The rose is more beautiful than the thistle. 
Happiness is more equally divided than some suppose. The more pru- 
dent one is, the more cautious he is. Can you describe the scene, as she 
can ? Our lesson is the same as we had yesterday. 

Fill the following blanks : — 

(11.) (Adverbial clause tcanting.) As a man thinketh . Will 

you be so good ? The pupil wrote the copy just as . Make 

the mark just as . The hour seemed so long . It is so cold 

. I am so lonely . This apple is larger * The stream 

is as deep » The more I read it . 



II. Two ob Mobb Added Elements. 
Case I. Added elements joined directly to the predicate. 

(12.) (Objective element, third class, adverbial first or second.) He was 
soon convinced that the supposed object was an optical illusion. I at first 
believed that all these objects existed within me. During this moment of 
darkness,, I imagined that I had lost the greatest part of my being. By 



SYNTAX CLAUSES — FUMUTX MODIFIED. 133 

this exercise, I soon learned that the faculty of feeling was expanded our 
every part of my frame. 

(13.) (Adverbial element, third class, objective element, first class.) The 
shepherd gave the alarm when he discovered the approach of the wolf. 
He closed his career before he had completed his thirty-sixth year. I have 
brought a passage that you may explain it. He visited the springs that 
he might improve his health. He would pull a mote out of his brother's 
eye, while he has a beam in hjs own. Place the package where it will not 
be injured. 

(14.) (Tivo adverbial elements, thirdclass.) Although it was very incon- 
venient, he came to see me when he was requested to come. As he passed 
ct: he felt his strength diminish from day to day, though his sufferings 
vscte by no means severe. Had he reformed, I would have assisted him, 
as I encouraged him to hope. If he can arrange his affairs, he will sail for 
Europe when the next steamer leaves. 

(15.) (Two elements of the third class, one objective, one adverbial.) If 
such be the character of the youthful mind, am I to ask you what must 
be the apj>earances of riper years ? When the farmer came down to break* 
fast that morning, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour h\ 
the night. Although he had labored diligently, he found that his efforts 
were unavailing. 



Case II. Added elements joined to each other — complex? 
objective and complex adverbial elements. 

Note. — A word or phrase may first be added to the predicate, and a clause may be- 
added to either of these, or the clause may be added directly to the predicate, and a 
word or phrase may be added to that. But it is generally best to regard a modified' 
proposition as a simple element, unless one of the modifying elements is itself a prop- 
position. Thus, in the following sentence, the clause in Italics may be regarded as. 
simple : M We knew that the heavy storm must do much damage to the kurvest." But in 
Ihe following the clause in Italics is complex : " We are persuaded that the work will 
idvaace as soon as all obstacles shall have been removed." 

Point out the complex predicate, and tell to which class it belongs. 

(16.) (Complex objective element, basis first.) I soon perceived the fact: 
that the study of geometry strengthened my reasoning powers, so that I 
could more readily trace relations of cause and effect. I experienced a pleas- 
ure which I cannot describe. You cannot understand the view which I take* 
of the subject. They improved the opportunities which they enjoyed;, 
Celsius invented the centigrade thermometer, which is considered the bes & 
by scientific men. 

(17.) (Complex adverbial element, basis second.) He was saved by- 
ropes which were thrown from the ship. The bard dwelt on those higha 
lands which overlook the sea. Temptation comes at the time in which we 
are least prepared to meet it. He came for a purpose which will be satis- 
factorily explained. 

Construct examples of your own, illustrating arvy of the previous elements, 
and take subjects from history or geography. 

12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



B. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

The subject and predicate may both be modified by sub- 
ordinate clauses, 

EXERCISES. 

Point cut the subordinate clauses in tlie following examples, and tell what 
they modify : — 

The views which we have now unfolded show that a rigorous action of the 
rnind is dependent upon a healthful condition of the physical functions. 
The letter which she expected came, as she had anticipated. A report 
that the enemy had capitulated was circulated before the embankments 
were completed. 

Add subordinate clauses to the subject and predicate of each of the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

He must believe . Many were journeying 

The reason was so unsatisfactory . Oranges are found 

. The wicked will be punished . The pretensions * 

convinced us . The wind causes . The ques 

tion was so answered . They shall receive . 

He will learn . Oxygen is the agent . 

Construct sentences containing zither substantive, adjective, or adverbial 
clauses. Say something about domestic affairs — something about the growth 
of flowers — something about the cultivation of silk — something about geog- 
raphy — relate some incident in the life of Washington, Franklin, Richard 
I., Queen Elizabeth, or write about any other subject which your teacher shale 
mention. 



SECTION IV. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES — SIMILAR PARTS COM 
BINED. 

Note. — In the foregoing sections the parts of a sentence are united — an adjective, a 
#erb, or a noun to a noun ; a noun or pronoun to a verb or adjective ; an adverb to a verb, 
in adjective, or an adverb ; and the relations in Sections II. and III. are represented by 
Connectives, while in Section I. the same relations are unrepresented, being indicated 
either by the position or altered form of the element itself. The parts united are. foi 
the most part, different parts of speech — different in the functions which they perform , 
different in the rank which they hold, one being principal, and the other subordinate 
to it ; and often different in form or class, one being a single word, another a phrase or 
clause. But it often happens that we wish to unite two elements which shall be the 
game part of speech, which shall stand in the same relation to some other element, 
which shall be of the same form or class, and perform the same mnctions._ Such ele 
men s are united by a peculiar class of conjunctions, called Coordinate Conjunctions , 
{See Conjunctions, p. 104,) because they join parts coordinate with each other! 

Instead of parts, one of which depends upon and modifies 
another, we may unite two or more similar elements, by 



SYNTAX — COJKUiWATfi ELEMENTS. 135 

placing them in the same relations to some other element ; 
as, " Peter and John went up to the temple." 

Here Peter and Jo'tn are both nouns, both used as subject, and both in the same re- 
lation to the predicate, and in respect to each other they are placed in a relation of 
perfect equality. Hence they are coordinate, that is, in the same rank. 

Two cases may occur — 

(1.) The coordinate parts may be either of the five elements of a sen- 
tence, the combination being called a compound element; as, "She recede 
and writes." 

(2.) The coordinate parts may be entire propositions, the combination 
being a compound sentence ; as, " Exalt her, and she shall promote thee." 



Case I. Coordinate elements, 
EXERCISES. 

Point out the compound elements in the following examples, and Jill the 
blanks zvherever elements are wanting : — 

(1.) (Compound subject, first class.) Exercise and temperance strengthen 
the constitution. Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other. 
John and James reside at home this summer. The rocks and hills of New 
England will remain till the last conflagration. And the chief priests and 
scribes stood and vehemently accused him. 

(2.) {Compound subject, second class.) To be or not to be, that is the ques- 
tion. To soothe thy sickness, and to watch thy health, shall be my pleasure. 
To toil for, and yet to lose, the reward of virtue, is the hard lot of man. To 
deprive me of liberty, to torture me, or to imprison me, is not your right. 
To live temperately, to avoid excitement, and to take alternate exercise 
and rest, are essential to health. 

(3.) ( Compound subject, third class.) That their poetry is almost uniform- 
ly mournful, and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be 
allowed by all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. Why we are thus de- 
tained, or why we receive no intelligence from home, is mysterious. Where 
he will obtain the means, and how he will be relieved from the pressure, is 
extremely uncertain. 

(4.) (One component part wanting.) Wit and are capti- 
vating. Eloquence and are gifts of nature. Love and min- 
gled in the regard of Helon's eye. Why -, or why , interests 

me very much. That the book will be successful, and that , will be 

shown by its extensive circulation. 

(•5.) (Compound, predicate, relation not expressed.) And the king went 
up to the chamber over the gate, and wept. No fascinated throng weep, 
and melt, and tremble at his eloquence. Approach, and behold, while I lift 
from his sepulchre its covering. 

(6.) (Compound predicate, relation expressed.) The present life is net 
wholly prosaic,* precise, tame, and finite. This is perce, and the true 

* In coordinate constructions, the connective, or any common part, Is omitted aftet 
Ui& first e)ement. (See Ellipsis, p. 195,) 



J 36 ENGLISH 3&AMMAE, 

happiness of mail. He is willing to risk his life in its defence, and is con- 
scious that he gains protection while he gives it. I can be contented and 
fully happy in the good which I possess. 

(7.) (Compound predicate, third class.) My proposition is, that your son 
shall be sent to college, that you shall go abroad, and that the house shall 
be closed during your absence. His direction was, that the patient should 
take a great deal of exercise, that his diet should be very carefully attend- 
ed to, and that every thing of an exciting nature should be avoided. His 
answer was, that he approved the plan of the measure, and that ho was 
confident of its success. 

(8.) {Adjective element, compound, first class.) The middle, the fa rest, 
and the most conspicuous places in cities are chosen for the erection of 
statues and monuments. Wise and good men are frequently unsuccessful. 
A bright and glorious prospect is opened by Christianity. Lord Corn- 
wallis, the English peer and general, surrendered at the battle of Yo v k- 
town. 

(9.) (Adjective element, compound, second.) The parting of Hector and 
Andromache is beautifully described by Homer. The reign of William 
and Mary commenced with the glorious revolution of 1688. The tops of 
Olympus and Parnassus reached above the clouds. The grating of the 
old-fashioned bars and bolts was answered by the clash of chains. 

(10.) {Adjective element, compound, third.) A cottage which is shaded with 
trees, and which is situated far from the noise and bustle of the city, is a 
very pleasant retreat. That faith which is one, which renews and justi- 
fies all who possess it, which confessions and formularies can never ade- 
quately express, is the property of all alike. The baron, who knows oui 
manners, and lives near our country, will apprise you of the time and 
means to be their protector. 

(11.) (Adjective element wanting.) A and behavior 

makes a person contemptible. Her and hands helped to bar 

the door against want. Every or thought is 

a violation of our obligation to our Maker. A and influence 

breathes around the dwellings of the dead. The artist who ■ — , and 

, is coming to reside in the city. 

(12.) (Compound objective element, first class.) And he said, Behold my 
mother and my brethren. 1 examined its form and its color. I note his 
dress, the sound of his voice, and the turn of his countenance. Pope wrote 
the Messiah, and the Essay on Criticism. 

(13 ) (Compound objective element, second.) It teaches us to be thankful 
for all favors received, to love each other, and to be united. He chooses 
to die, and to redeem his friend. She is led to engage in calmer pursuits, 
and seek for gentler employment. 

(14.) (Compound objective element t thi r rd.) He heard that his wife had 
fallen a lingering sacrifice to penury and sorrow ; that his children were 
gone to seek their fortunes in distant or unknown climes ; and that the 
grave contained his nearest and most valuable friends. He found that 
every thing was changed, that strangers inhabited the home of his child- 
hood, and that he was alone in the world. I know that the eye of the 
public is upon me, and that I shall be held responsible for every act. 

(15.) ( One objective elenient wanting.) I have neither wit, nor 



It gave him the manners and of the most perfect gentle- 
man. The warm sunny days will cause the grass to grow, and — . Ht3 

*ound that the lecture was postponed, and . 

(16=) (Ackerbicd element, compound.) How bright and goodly shines the 



SYNTAX COORDINATE CLAUSES. 1 .'>7 

moon I When and where he lived, I cannot tell you. The voice of the 
preacher grew fainter and fainter. 

(17.) (Compound adverbial element, second.) With trembli .g limbs and 
faltering steps, he departed from his mansion of sorrow. I have spent my 
days, in darkness and error. I see new meaning, every hour, in his arch eye 
and speaking face. With surprise and joy, she espied a monk support- 
ing Marmion's head. 

(18.) {Compound adverbial element, third.) When a few more friends 
have left, a few more hopes deceived, and a few more changes mocked us, 
we shall be brought to the grave, and shall remain in the tomb. He takes 
us from earth that he may lead us to heaven, that he may refine our nature 
from all its principles of corruption, that he may share with us his own 
immortality, that he may admit us to his everlasting habitation, and that 
he may crown us with his eternity. 

(19.) (One adverbial element warding.) She studied diligently and . 

The great Scipio treated his captives with magnanimity and . How- 
ard spent his life in relieving the distressed, , and . Every 

one rejoices when spring comes, , and . She will return be- 
fore we expect her, and . 

(20.) (Elements both complex and compound.) To carry on with effect 
an expensive war, and yet be frugal of the public money ; to oblige those 
to serve whom it may be delicate to offend ; to conduct, at the same time, 
a complicated variety of operations ; to concert measures at home, answer- 
able to the state of things abroad ; and to gain every valuable end in 
spite of opposition from the envious and disaffected, — this is more difficult 
than is generally thought. 



Case II. Coordinate clauses. 

(21.) (Copulative clauses.) I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. 
Green is the most refreshing color to the eye ; hence Providence has made 
it the common dress of nature. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a 
spiritual body. Not only am I instructed by this exercise, but I am also 
invigorated. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. We 
shall feel the same revolution of seasons, and the same sun and moon will 
guide the course of our year. You know I love a country life, and here 
we have it in perfection. Submission and obedience are the lessons of her 
life, and peace and happiness her reward. 

(22.) (Adversative clauses.) She took them, but she could not tear them 
from me. The man was communicative enough, but nothing was distinct 
in his mind. We must not expect that our roses will grow without thorns ; 
but then they are useful and instructive thorns, which, by pricking the 
fingers of the too hasty plucker, teach future caution. The tunes are ex- 
tremely gay and lively, yet they have something in them wonderfully 
soft. • I believe there are few heads capable of making Sir Isaac Newton's 
calculations, but the result of them is not difficult to be understood by a 
moderate capacity. 

(23 ) (Alternative clauses.) Never utter any profane speeches, nor make 
a jest of any Scripture expressions. Learn your lesson, otherwise you must 
Jose your rank. I neither learned wisdom, nor have I a knowledge of the 
holy. Either he will hate the one, and love the other, or else he will 
hold to the one, and despise the other. Neither hath this man sinned, 
nor his parents. 

(24.) (Compound sentences with complex members.) When he rose every 

12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sound was hushed, and when he spoke every eye was fixed upon him. If 
the means were in themselves bad, you would not say that the end justi- 
fied them ; or if the means were good, you would not s?,y that they justified 
all the results which might flow from their use. You take my house, when 
r ou do take the prop that doth sustain my house ; you take my life, when 
you do take the means whereby I live. Employ thy time well, if thou 
meanest to gain leisure ; and since thou art not sure of a minute, throw 
not away an hour. If you would have your business done, go i if not, 
send. 



ELEMENTS. 

Note. — A careful examination of the preceding sections, with a proper attention to 
eacli construction, will prepare the learner for the distinctions here to be made. Each 
definition should be verified by a reference to the section and exercise which illus- 
trates it 

An element is an expression which represents an idea 
and its relation ; as, " He walked — — in the gar- 
den." 

Rem. — An element of a sentence is either the subject or predicate, or 
some part immediately connected with one of these. Every remote ele- 
ment, that is, one not immediately connected with the subject or predicate, 
is to be regarded as a component part of a complex element of the 

sentence ; as, " He walked in the garden of the pri?ice." Here, 

of the prince is a remote element, dependent immediately on garden, 
and is a component part of the complex element, in the garden of the 
prince. 

CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 

Elements may take three different forms, called tkejirst, 
second, and third classes. 

(1.) When the relation and idea are both represented by one word, with- 
out a connective, we have an element of the first class; as, " John — 
writes" 

(2.) When the relation is expressed by one word, and the idea by anoth- 
er, forming a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, or an infini- 
tive, we have an element of the second class ; as, " John lives in 

hope." " He desires to improve." 

(5.) When the relation is represented by one word, and the idea or 
thought by a proposition, forming a clause consisting of a connective, a 
subject, and a predicate, we have an element of the third class; as, "I 
know — that he told me the truth" 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the elements in the following sentences, and tell to what class 
they belong : — 

On a sunny bank buttercups are bright. The trees are leafless. The 
gathering darkness of night comes on. A life of prayer is the life of heaven. 
Thy brother shall rise again. The ransomed shout to their glorious King, 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS, PRINCIPAL iND SUBORDINATE. 1*59 

where no sorrow shades the soul as they sing. The darkness wavea wider 
its sable wings. With these words I quitted him. She appears to know 
every thing. Swans sing before they die. 

The elements, according to their rank in construction, are 
either principal or subordinate. 

A principal element is one on which others depend ; as, 
" A good man honors any calling." 

Here, man and honors are principal elements. 

A subordinate element is one which depends upon a 
principal. 

A, good, calling, and any, in the above example, are subordinate elements. 

The principal elements are the subject and the predicate ; 
as, " Time flies. 1 ' 

Rem. 1. — The subject naturally takes the first rank, and is the only 
element wdiich is, strictly speaking, independent. The predicate, being an 
attribute of the subject, is naturally dependent upon it, borrowing its 
number, person, and case, and in some languages its gender also, directly 
from the subject. Yet in the construction of a proposition, there is a mu- 
tual dependence ; there can be no subject without a predicate, and no predi- 
cate without a subject, and no sentence without both. Hence they may 
well be called principal elements, although there is in the nature of things 
a dependence of the one npon the other. 

Rem. 2. — The subject may be known by its answering the questions, 
Whof or What? wdth the predicate; as, Who wrote? Ans. '■''Frank 
wrote.'* What was written ? Ans. " A letter was written." 

Rem. 3. — The subject may be, — 

(1.) Knoun or pronoun; as, "Angels appeared." "He wept." 

(2.) The adjective or participle used as a noun; as, " The wise protect 

themselves." " The persevering will conquer." 

(3.) Any word, syllable, or letter, used as a noun ; as, " Is is a verb/' 

" A is a vowel." " Re is a prefix." 

(4.) An infinitive; as, " To labor is to exert ourselves." 

(5.) A proposition ; as, " That this story is true, is very evident." 

R^M. 4. — The predicate may be known by its answering the question, 

What is said of ? What do, or doing? as, What is said of 

the water ? Ans. " The water is clear." What is George doing ? Ans. 
*' George is reading." 

Rem. 5. — The predicate consists essentially of two parts — the copula 
and attribute; as, " The ocean is deep." 

Rem. 6. — The copula is some modification of the verb to be, (am, ify 
was, were, £:c.) 

Rem. 7. — The attribute may be, — 

(1.) A participle ; as, "I am wal/a?ig." " He is loved." 

(2.) An adjective ; as, " The moon is pale." 

(3.) A noun or protioun ; as, " Gold is a metal." ' I am toe.* 9 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(4.) An infinitive or phrase; as, " He is to sail.** " George is to be edu- 
cated." " They are without money." 

(5.) A subordinate proposition ; as, " My intention is, that the whole 
work shall be completed before the appointed time" 

Rem. 8. — When both parts are blended, the word which represents 
tfieni is always a verb ; as, " He is walking " = He walks. 

The subordinate elements are the adjective element, the ob- 
jective element, and the adverbial element ; as, " The good 
man performs his duty faithfully" 

Rem. 1. — The adjective element may be known by its being connected 
with a noun or pronoun, without an assertion, and by its answering the 
questions Whatf What kind oj 7 How many* Whose? Of what f 
Which f as, What kind of hat f Ans. " A black hat." 

Rem. 2. — An adjective element, when both the relation and idea are 
expressed by one word, is either an adjective or a substantive. When the 
relation and idea are expressed separately, it is either a phrase, consisting 
of a preposition and object, or an infinitive, or a subordinate proposition. 

Rem. 3. — The objective element may be known by its being connected 
with a transitive verb, and by its answering the questions What or Whom,? 
as, IVhathzshe brought? Ans. "He has brought an orange" Whom 
do you see ? Ans. " I see David." 

Rem. 4. — The objective element, when both the relation and the idea 
are expressed by one word, is a noun or pronoun. When the relation and 
idea are expressed separately, it is either an infinitive or a subordinate 
proposition. 

Rem. 5. — The adverbial element may be known by its answering the 
questions Where? When? Why? How? with a verb, adjective, or ad- 
verb ; as, How does she play ? Ans. " She plays correctly" 

Rem. 6. — The adverbial element, when both the relation and idea are 
expressed by one word, is an adverb. When the relation and idea are 
expressed separately, it is a preposition and object, or a subordinate prop- 
osition. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the different elements in the following sentences : — 
The flowers of the meadow she plucks no longer. He was not clad in 
costly raiment. Such was the state of Eden when the serpent entered 
its bowers. Our life is compared to a falling leaf. He who has tamed the 
elements shall not live the slave of his own passions. We love liberty. 
The crow, which had found the cheese, signified her joy with a loud voice 
Ariovistus replied that he had crossed the Rhine, not by his own will, but 
entreated and hired by the Gauls. The boy begged that they would come 
to his assistance. 

Aside from connectives, the elements, in regard to their 
nature, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 

Rem. — This classification supposes the pure verb (copula) to be only a 
connective, and whatever is united o * blended with this verb, making it a 
mixed verb, to be of the nature of an adjective. 



SYNTAX — ELEMENTS, SIMPLE, COMPLEX, ETC. 141 

We have, therefore, — 

(1.) Substantive words, phrases, or clauses; as, man, to sing, that he 
ihould be detected. 

(2.) Adjective words, phrases, or clauses ; as, wise man, a man of wis- 
dom, a man who is wise. 

(3.) Adverbial words, phrases, or clauses ; as, rising early, rising at tun- 
rise, rising before the sun rises. 



EXERCISE. 

Point out the substantive, adjective, and adverbial elements, and tell wheth- 
er they are words, phrases, or clauses. 

We went to ride in the early morning. The beautiful rose bears the 
name of the " Cloth of Gold." The invitation was accepted with great 
pleasure. He labored diligently to complete the work. It is easy to main- 
tain authority where it is once established. He was a youth full of prom- 
ise. They mourned his untimely death. Shenstone wrote the " Village 
Schoolmistress," to immortalize the teacher of his boyhood. He improved 
rapidly under the tuition of so distinguished a teacher. He thought that 
6he would do much good. The adage, " Knowledge is Power," is verified 
by experience. 

Elements, in regard to their state or condition, ma}' be sim- 
ple, complex, or compound. 

A simple element is a single expression for an idea and 
its relation, without modification or addition ; as, " We left 

early." u We left at dawn." " We left 

as day dawned." 

A complex element is a simple element modified by another 

element subordinate to it; as, u We left very early" 

M We left at early dawn." " We left as the day 

first dawned in the east." 

Rem. — So a complex sentence is a simple sentence modified by 
another sentence subordinate to it; as, "I perceived that the party hi*a 
separated." 

A compound element is a combination of two or more 
coordinate simple or complex elements ; as, " We work 

early and late" " We are employed in the 

morning, at noon, and at night" ( We were travelling 

when the wind was blowing, and when the storm was 

beating against our carriage." 

Rem. — So a compound sentence is the combination of two or more 
simple or complex sentences ; as, " He that trusteth in his riches sha!* 
fall ; but the righteous shall flourish as a branch." 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE. 

Point cut the simple, complex, and compound elements in the following : — > 

" How have you secured this good order ? " said we to the teacher. In 
early childhood, the conscience is most active. During three years, he 
made surprising progress in useful knowledge. Peace, tranquillity, and 
innocence shed their mingled delights around him. Every door, and por- 
tal, and avenue is thrown open. He thinks not of duty, or of future use- 
fulness. When the poor and needy seek water, and there is none, and 
their tongue faileth for thirst, I, the Lo:^ will hear them, I, the God of 
Israel, will not forsake them 



RELATION OF ELEMENTS. 

All elements, or parts of a sentence, are united in one or 
the other of two general relations — a relation of equality , 
or a relation of dependence. 

The former subsists between coordinate elements ; the 
latter between a subordinate element and its principal ; as, 
" The sun and the moon stood still" 

When an element is brought into a coordinate relation 
with another, the former has no control over the latter ; but 
when an element is placed in a subordinate relation to anoth- 
er, the latter, as principal, often controls the case, mode, 
tense, number, or person of the former, regarded as its sub- 
ordinate. 

When the influence of the principal element is such as to 
cause the subordinate to take its own modifications, (number, 
person, case,) the latter is said to agree with the former ■ 
when the subordinate element is made to take a certain form, 
as the possessive or objective case, it is said to be governed 
by the principal, or by the word which shows the dependent 
relation, as the preposition, for example. 

Rem. 1. — The relation between the subject and predicate is called the 
predicate relation, (See Rem. 1. p. 139 ;) that of the noun and the adjec- 
tive element is called the adjective or attributive relation ; that of the 
objective element and the transitive verb is called the objective relation; 
and that of the adverbial element and the verb, adjective, or adverb, is 
called the adverbial relation. The last three are always dependent 
relations. 

Rem, 2. — Any element in a ubordinate relation may h^ve anothei in 



\ 

SYNTAX RELATIONS. 143 

the same subordinate relation joined to it coordinately ; as, " A good and 
faithful servant." 

Relations may bo either represented or unrepresented , 
as, u The ooy was running with rapidity " = The boy ran 
rapidly. 

Rem. — In elements of the first class, the dependent relations are a] 
ways unrepresented. (See " Construction," Sec. I.) In those of the sec 
ond class, the dependent relations are expressed by appropriate connec 
tives, called prepositions. (See " Construction," Sec. II.) And in those of 
the third class, the dependent relations are expressed by conjunctive words 
called subordinate connectives. (See " Construction," Sec. ill.) Coordi- 
nate relations are always expressed by a class of connectives called coordU 
nate conjunctions. (See " Construction," Sec. IV.) 



EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the different relations ; tell whether 
they are represented or unrepresented : — 

The pope went to Paris to crown the emperor. If it should storm, 
the lecture will be postponed. The latest intelligence was repoi ted 
by the telegraph. I do not fancy the picture. We hear of several 
removals in the different departments. The president's levee was 
thronged, and was a very brilliant affair. The statement that the treaty 
was concluded, was a mistake. He only asks their sympathies. Let agri- 
culture clothe our vast wastes with waving plenty. I wish to speak with 
some reserve upon this subject. Providence has placed us between the two 
great world oceans, and we shall always be a maritime power of the first 
order. 

In the following sentences, trace the relation of the last word back to the 
subject , describing each as you pass : — 

It was not thus with the places I visited during the short space of cessa- 
tion from task and toil that the week allowed. I have lately traversed my 
native village without discovering one familiar face. Our early recollec- 
tions are pleasing to us because they look not on the morrow. 

Thus, in the sentence, " I will simply say that the story I am about to 
relate has its foundation in an old legend of the first settlers of the coun- 
try," country is a subordinate element, related to settlers by means of of; 
settlers is an element subordinate to legend, and having its relation repre- 
sented by of; legend is subordinate to foundation — its relation is rep- 
resented by in ; foundation is related subordinately to has — its relation 
is unrepresented; has is related to story ; they are mutually dependent 
upon each other — relation unrepresented. Combined as a proposition, 
they are related subordinately to will say, by that, and will say is related 
to I, which stands as the subject of the sentence. 

Reverse the order, and trace the relation of the subject down thrc ugh the 
predicate to the remotest term. 

Any term being given, state, $n connection with it, its antecedent, or prin- 
cipal term. Thus, in the sentence above, " country " being given, say 
* Settlers of the country." 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ENTIRE SENTENCES. 

A sentence, considered as an entire structure, either de- 
dares something, asks a question, expresses a command, or 
contains an exclamation. 

A declarative sentence is one which declares something; 
as, " The truth will prevail." 

An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question ; 
as, " Wilt thou be made whole ? " 

An imperative sentence is one which expresses a corn 
mand ; as, " Put up thy sword into its sheath." 

An exclamatory sentence is one which contains an ex- 
clamation ; as, " How art thou fallen ! " 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the different kinds of sentences in the following : — 

I heard their drowning cry mingling with the wind. And has it come 
to this ? The stores of his mind were inexhaustible. Give it here, my 
honest fellow. Think on my chains ! I will paint the death dew on his 
brow ! Is any sick among you ? Stands Scotland in its place ? Why 
weeps the Muse of England ? Over these matchless talents Probity threw 
ner brightest lustre. Let him not faint. Screen not a traitor from the 
law. The starless grave shall shine the portal of eternal day ! Sin not 
against thy God ! When will you finish my picture ? Thou wouldst not 
have me make a trial of my skill upon my child ! 

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

An interrogative sentence relates either to the whole or a 
fart of a corresponding declarative sentence, called the an- 
swer, or responsive ; as, " Whom did you see ? " Ans. 
John ; that is, " I saw John" " Did you see John ? " Yes 
=z I did see John. 

Interrogative sentences are of two kinds — direct and 
indirect. 

A direct interrogative refers to the whole of the sentence 
which answers the question, and is always introduced by a 
verb or its auxiliary ; as, " Did you see John ? " Yes == I 
did see John. 

\ 



SYNTAX TRANSFORMATION. 145 

Rem. — Direct interrogative sentences are answered by yes or no. When 
uttered, the} end with the rising inflection. 

An indirect interrogative sentence always refers to some 
part or element of the sentence which answers the question, 
and is always introduced by some interrogative word, which 
corresponds with the element inquired for ; as, Who came ? 
John came. When did he come ? He came in the morn- 
ing. Which pen have you ? I have the gold pen. 

Rem. 1. — Indirect interrogative sentences cannot be answered by yet 
or no. They commonly end with the falling inflection. 

Rem. 2. — The interrogative is of the nature of the substantive, adjec- 
tive, or adverb, to correspond to the element inquired for. 

Rem. 3. — Indirect questions are commonly answered elliptically by in- 
troducing simply the element referred to, the rest of the answer being 
borrowed from the question; as, " Where do you live?" " In Smith- 
field " = I live in Smithfleld. 

EXERCISES. 

Point %ut the direct and indirect interrogative sentences in the following 
examples ; i?i the indirect, tell which element is inquired for : — 

Why could not we cast him out ? Believe ye that I am able to do this ? 
Whose is this image and superscription ? Am I to forgive if he will not 
repent ? When can you hope for another, if this be neglected ? Hast 
thou seen the doors of the shadow of death ? Do all speak with tongues ? 
Why do I suffer so many sorrows ? Will you suffer your glory to be sul- 
lied ? Who can estimate the influence of the Sabbath school ? At what 
time this evening will the moon rise ? Am I my brother's keeper ? Have 
§41 the gifts of healing ? Why, what evil hath he done ? Shall the Turk 
still pollute the soil sanctified by the brightest genius ? 



TRANSFORMATION OE* SENTENCES. 

Whenever a sentence undergoes a change, either by alter- 
ing, suppressing, or transposing any of its parts, it is said 
to be transformed ; as, " After he had discovered Hispaniola> 
Columbus returned to Spain " = Having discovered His- 
paniola, Columbus returned to Spain = Columbus returned 
to Spain, after he had discovered Hispaniola. 

I. Altered Constructions. 

We may alter the forms of a sentence, or of an element, 
ir» the following cases : — 
(1/ We may use the active for the passive voice, or the passive for the 

13 



i46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

active ; as, " Columbus discovered xAmerica m = America was discovered by 
Columbus. 

(2.) We may change an element of the first class to one of the second. 
or one of the second to one of the first ; as, " A morning ride is refresh 
ing " = A ride in the morning is refreshing. 

(3.) A complex sentence may be changed to a simple sentence (or a eon* 
traded complex) by abridging its subordinate clause ; as, " When the 
shower had passed, we resumed our journey " = The shower having passed 
we resumed our journey. 

Rem. — A proposition is abridged by changing the predicate to a parti- 
ciple, or an infinitive ; as, " The winds blow" = The winds blowing or to 
bloio. The predicate relation is destroyed, and the attribute is placed in an 
adjective relation to the subject. For the method of disposing of the sub- 
ject in such constructions, see Abridged Propositions, page 185. 

(4.) A simple sentence may be changed to a complex by expanding any 
of its elements into a proposition ; as, " A merciful man is merciful to his 
beast " = A man who is merciful, is merciful to his beast. 

(o.) A complex sentence may be changed to a compound, by raising the 
subordinate clause to an equal rank with the principal, and changing the 
subordinate connective to a coordinate; as, "When spring comes, the 
flowers will bloom " = The spring will come, and the flowers will bloom. 

(6.) A compound sentence may be changed to a complex, bv depressing 
one of its propositions into a subordinate rank ; as, " Man has a moral 
sense, and therefore he is an accountable being " = Since man has a mor- 
al sense, he is an accountable being. 

(7.) A question for gaining assent may be changed into a declarative 
sentence, or a declarative sentence may be changed into a question for 
gaming assent ; as, " Will he plead against me with his great power ? " = 
He will not plead against me with his great power. 

Hem. A question for gaining assent, or a question of appeal, is employed, 
not when the speaker is in doubt, but when he wishes to gain the assent 
of the hearer, and, as it were, commit him to his own views. Hence, when 
the speaker expects a negative answer, he omits the negative in the ques- 
tion ; and when he expects an affirmative answer, he inserts the negative 
in the question. In the declarative sentence, the opposite of this rule 
should prevail. See example above. 

(8.) Any sentence is said to be reconstructed, or recast, when the former 
construction is wholly disregarded; as, " That which agrees with the wil) 
of God should please us " = We should be pleased with whatever is agree 
able to the will of our heavenly Father. 



EXERCISES. 

(1.) Use the active for the passive, and the passive for the active, in tl 
following examples, supplying the agent whenever omitted: — 

He has bestowed a great many favors upon us. Gold has been disc / 
ered in Australia. I will call you in the morning. The work was finis 1 .oti 
at the appointed time. A battle was fought at Waterloo. He was bi ved 
in Westminster Abbey. They spent the summer at the sea shore. He 
made great progress in his profession. 

(2.) I?i the folloicing examples, change any element of the first c is U 
one of the second, and the reverse : — 



SYNTAX ELEMENTS SUPPRESSED. 147 

A morning walk Is conducive to health. A marble statue was placed in 
the grove. Joseph's father gave him a coat of many colors. Jonathan 
was the friend of David. They reached the top of the mountain. Achille* 
was a Grecian hero. The siege of Troy continued ten years. The city 
of CorintU was taken by Mummius. Her sister's death was a great afflic- 
tion. The gentleman's character is above suspicion. My son, hear the in 
struction of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother. 

(3.) Change the following complex sentences to simple or contracted com- 
plex sentences by abridging the subordinate clause : — 

Since such is the fact, you have no cause for solicitude. When you look 
into the Bible, you see holiness and purity its great characteristics. Be- 
cause I tell you the truth, ye believe me not. A man who is deceitful can 
never be trusted. A short time since, and he who is the occasion of our 
sorrows was the ornament of his country. Happy is the man that findeth 
wisdom. I do not know where he is concealed. 

(4.) Expand the Italicized elements, in the following simple sentences, 
into subordinate clauses : — 

The crocuses, blooming in the garden, attracted the bees. Hannibal, the 
Carthaginian general, conquered the Romans in four battles. Having ac- 
cumulated a fortune, he wiLl retire from business. We told him to leave. 
Gliding along the edge of the horizon, a distant sail attracted our attention. 
He should have perished upon the brink, before attempting to cross it. The 
body, having reached its maturity, falls inevitably into decay. 

(5.) Change the examples in exercise (3) into compound sentences, and 
then back again to complex. 

MODEL. 

Such is the fact, and therefore you have no cause for solicitude = Since 
such is the fact, you have no cause for solicitude. 

(6.) Change the following sentences, the declarative into interrogative, 
and the interrogative into declarative : — 

He listened to the music of the running brook. He found pleasure in 
giving instruction. He made the experiment successfully. Were they not 
gone longer than you expected ? Was not the lecture interesting ? Hast 
thou commanded the morning since thy days, and caused the dayspring to 
know his place ? Have the gates of death been opened unto thee? De- 
clare, if thou knowest it all. You may be allowed to speak. 

(7.) Reconstruct the following : — 

He left the home of his childhood. He came unexpectedly. Death i' 
the common lot of all. The season for the singing of birds is near. Honest? 
is the best policy. Reverence the aged. A river in France is called th'i 
Loire. Cold is the hearth within their bowers. He paused upon the brin 1 * 
Let me have leave to speak. It was the night of the soul. Like a spec 
rre in the night, the grandeur of Rome n&s vanished. Beauty dwells 13 
all our paths. 

II. Elements Suppressed. — Ellipsis. 

When the construction requires the repetition of any pari 
of the sentence, that part, if the meaning is sufficiently evi 
dent, may he suppressed or omitted by ellipsis. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — For all the varieties of ellipsis, see " Peculiarities and Idioms*.* 

By an ellipsis of a common part, a compound sentence 
may be reduced to a partial or contracted compound sen- 
tence ; as, " Bacon was a distinguished writer, Shakspeare 
was a distinguished writer, and Butler was a distinguished 
writer " = Bacon, Shakspeare, and Butler were distinguished 
writers. 

By supplying ellipses, any contracted compound sentence 
may be changed to a complete compound ; as, " The king 
and queen were absent " — The king was absent, and the 
queen was absent. 

EXERCISES. 

Take any of the examples in " Construction" Sec. IV., and co?ivert them 
into complete comjjounds ; then change them back to partial or contracted 

compounds. 

III. Elements Transposed. 

The arrangement of the elements is the position which 
they take in the sentence. 

There are two kinds of arrangement, the natural and the 
inverted or transposed. 

In a proposition, by the natural order, the subject is placed 
before the predicate ; the adjective element is placed before 
the noun when of the fir* A class, but after the noun when of 
the second or third , me objective element is placed after 
the verb which governs it ; and the adverbial element com- 
monly follows the objective element; as, " The good boy 
studied his geography attentively." " The kingdom of Sar- 
dinia is situated in the south of Europe." 

An element is transposed whenever it is placed out of its 
natural order; as, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." 
" Copernicus these wonders told." "V/isely were his efforts 
directed." 



SYN f A^ — ANALYSIS. 149 



EXERCISES. 



Point out the elements which are transposed in the following sentences , 
and then arrange them in their natural order : — 

Welcome thou art to me. From the king I come to learn how you have 
dealt with him. For now his son is duke. Unto my mother's prayers, I 
bend the knee. Infected be the air whereon they ride. Accursed be the 
tongue that tells me so. How bright and goodly shines the moon ! How 
beaut i/ul is all this visible world ! 

Transpose any of the elements in the following ; tell whether the sen- 
tence is thereby improved or not : — 

A short time since, and he who is the occasion of our sorrows was the or- 
nament of his country. Approach, and behold, while I lift from his sepul- 
chre its covering. Where is the mother who would willingly forget the 
infant that perished like a blossom from her arms, though every recollec- 
tion is a pang ? But, as if this were not enough, the unfortunate victims 
of this law are told, in the next place, that, if they can convince the presi- 
dent that his suspicions are unfounded, he may, if he pleases, give them a 
license to stay. Man, we believe, never loses the sentiment of his true 
good. 



II. ANALYSIS. 

Analysis consists in resolving a sentence into its elements, 
and pointing out the offices and relations of each. 

Parsing consists in naming the parts of speech, giving 
their modifications, relations, agreement, or government, and 
the rules for their construction. 

Note. — The learner having now, by the process of construction, become acquaint- 
ed with the various kinds of sentences, their component parts in all their relations 
and forms, is prepared for the opposite process of taking in pieces what he has learned 
to build up. lie should proceed carefully at first, mastering each sentence as he 
advances. It will be well for him to mingle the two exercises of constructing and 
analyzing, and in all cases to keep up the habit of parsing according to the moae' 
already given. Let any or all of the examples in Construction be analyzed by t 
pupil. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

In analyzing a sentence, the learner should observe tfo 
following directions : — 

(1.) Read the sentence, and determine whether it is declarative, inter 
rogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 

(2.) Endeavor to realize all the ideas in the sentence, by thinking or im- 
agining what the writer describes as if you were with him, and could see with 
the mental eye just what each word represents. 
13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(3.) Arrange the sentence, if inverted, in the natural order. 

(4.) If necessary, supply ellipses. 

(5.) Find out the fewest possible words which make the principal as- 
sertion, and then see what words or (/roups of words are added to these, to 
show what, how many, what kind, whose, where, when, why, how, &c. 

(6.) If the principal assertion, with all the words, and groups of words, 
which make up the sentence, is found to contain but one proposition, it is 
a simple sentence. 

It should be analyzed, — 

(a.) By stating what kind of a sentence it is. 

(b.) By pointing out the simple ox grammatical subject. 

(c.) By pointing out the simple or grammatical predicate. 

(d.) By pointing out the words or gi-oups of words which are added tc 
the subject, showing what kind of element; how connected; what effect 
each addition has upon the subject, that is, how it limits, what it excludes, 
&c. ; whether it is simple, complex, or compound — if complex or compound, 
what are the simple elements which compose it, and what effect one has 
upon another. 

(e.) By showing what the complex or logical subject is. 

(/.) By pointing out separately all the words, or groups of words, which 
are added to the predicate, and disposing of them as in the subject. 

(g.) By showing what is the complex or logical predicate.* 

(7.) If the subject or predicate of the principal assertion is a proposi- 
tion, or if any of the groups of words, added directly or remotely to modify 
either of these, contain a proposition, then the sentence is complex, and 
should be analyzed, — 

(a.) By pointing out the principal and subordinate proposition or prep- 
ositions. 

(5.) By commencing with the principal proposition as though it were a 
single sentence, and analyzing it as above, introducing the subordinate 
proposition as a group of words forming an organic or component part of 
the principal, and calling it substantive, adjective, or adverbial, as the case 
may be. Then show its modifying efiect, as in the case of any other element ; 
explain the connection, point out the connective, and then analyze the 
proposition as if it were a simple sentence. 

(8.) If the sentence contains one proposition, to which is added another 
that in no way modifies the construction of the former, (it may modify the 
thought,) it is compound, and should be analyzed, — 

(a.) By separating it into its several coordinate propositions. 

(b.) By pointing out the connection, explaining its nature, and disposing 
of the coordinate connective. 

(<?.) By pointing out the parts of each proposition, as in the case of a 
simple sentence. 

(9.) If the sentence is a contracted complex, analyze it as a simple 
sentence, but point out the part which is equivalent to a* subordinate clause. 



* This minute method is to be pursued when great, accuracy is desired. At times 
it is best to adopt a much shorter method. Sometimes it will be well to van' the 
above order, giving the complex subject or predicate first, and then the simple, point- 
ing out all the added words which make up the complex. Various models of the 
shorter methods will be given 



SYNTAX MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. |«51 

(10.) li' the sentence is a partial 01 cox/rarltd compound, analyze it 
sis a simple sentence, regarding the coOivliuate elements as one compound 
element. 

(11.) Every element consisting of paits should be separated into it 
parts. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

I. Elements with the Relations Unrepresented. 

" George writes." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 

proposition ; declarative, because it declares something 
George is the subject, because it is that of -which the action 

"writes " is affirmed. 
Writes is the predicate, because it is that which is affirmed 

of " George." 

Note. — It is well often to combine parsing with analysis, thus : George is the subject, 
&c. ; it is a proper noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, nomina- 
tive case, by Rule I. Writes is the predicate — an irregular verb, indicative mode, 
present tense, third person singular, and agrees with its subject, George, by Rule IV 
At other times, the two exercises may be separated, and sometimes it is well to re 
quire the pupils to parse the words, taking them in the exact order of construction . 
first, the subject; second, the predicate ; third, modifications of the subject ; fourth, 
modifications of the predicate. 

Exercise. — Any examples in " Construction." — Sec, I. 

" The summer shower falls gently." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition ; declarative, because it declares some- 
thing. 

Shower is the grammatical subject ; it is simply that of which 

something is affirmed. 

Falls is the grammatical predicate, because it is that which 

is affirmed of " showers." The subject is limited by 
summer, a simple adjective element of the first class ; 
adjective, because it is used to limit a noun ; of the 
first class, because it is a single word joined directly 
to the subject, without a connective ; it limits by an- 
swering the question, " What kind off" it excludes 
the idea of all showers falling at any other time than 
summer ; it is a simple element, because nothing U 
added to it. The subject is also limited by the, a sim- 
ple adjective element of the first class ; it limits by 
showing that some particular shower is meant. 

The summer shoxcer is the logical subject, because it is the grammatical 
subject with all its limitations. The predicate is lim- 
ited by gently, a simple adverbial element of the first 
class ; it is adverbial, because it is added to a verb, and 
denotes manner ; of the first class, because it is joined 
directly to the predicate without a connective ; it lim- 
its by answering the question " How ? " it excludes 
the idea of all showers which do not fall gently ; it is 
simple, because nothing is added to it. 
Falls geytfly . . . is the logical predicate, because it is the grammatical 
predicate with all its limitations 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The same proposition may be analyzed briefly in the following 
manner : — 

It is a simple declarative sentence; the summer shower is the logical sub- 
ject; shower is the grammatical subject; it is limited by the two simple 
adjective elements of the first class, the and summer ; falls gently is the 
logical predicate ; falls is the grammatical predicate, and is limited by 
a simple adverbial element of the first class, gently. 

" Whom seek ye ? " 

It is a si??iple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition ; interrogative, because it asks a question ; 
indirect, because it inquires for only a part of the cor- 
responding declarative sentence, (it inquires for the ob- 
jective element of the answer, " I seek David ; ") in- 
verted because the objective element is placed first. 

Ye is the subject, because it is that of which something is 

affirmed, (inquired.) 

Seek is the predicate, because it is that which is affirmed of 

ye; grammatical, because it is the predicate without 
any of its limitations ; it is limited by whom, a simple 
objective element of the first class. 

Seek tohom is the logical predicate, because it is the grammatical 

predicate with its limitations. 

Note. — When the subject or predicate is not modified, the logical subject or predi- 
cate is the same as the grammatical. But it is not necessary to make any distinction 
in such cases ; simply say, subject or predicate. 

Exercise. — Examples in " Construction." — Sec. I. p. 112. 
" His enemies, the Germans, crossed the Rhine." 

It is a simple declarative sentence ; (why ?) 

Enemies is the simple subject ; (why?) His enemies, the Get- 

mans, is the logical subject ; (why ?) 

Crossed is the simple predicate ; (why ?) Crossed the Rhine is 

the logical predicate ; (why ?) 

Enemies is limited by his, a simple adjective element of the 

first class ; and also by the Germans, a complex adjec- 
tive element of the first class, of which Germans is the 
basis, and is limited by the. 

Crossed is limited by the Rhine, a complex objective element 

of the first class, of which Rhine is the basis, and is 
limited by the, a simple adjective element of the first 
class. 

" A very high hill overlooks an extensive valley." 

It is a simple declarative sentence ; (why?)* 

Bill is the simple subject; (why ?) A very high hill is the 

complex subject; (why ?) 
Overlooks is the simple predicate ; (why ?) Overlooks an exten- 
sive valley is the complex predicate ; (why ?) 

Hill is limited by ci, a simple adjective element of the first 

class, and by very high, a complex adjective element 
of the first class, showing what kind of hill ; adjective, 
because it limits a noun ; complex, because the simple 
element high is itself limited by very, a simple ad- 
verbial element of the first class ; of the first class, be- 
cause the basis high is a single word joined without a 
connective to hill. 



SYNTAX MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 153 

Overlooks is limited by an extensive valley, a complex objective 

element of the first class, showing what it overlooks ; 
valley is the basis or principal part of the objective 
element, and is limited by an and extensive, simple ad 
jective elements of the first class ; (why ?) Now pars/ 
each word in order, beginning with the subject. 



J I. Sentences having the Relations Ret/resented. 
" To steal is base." 

It is a simple declarative sentence. 

To steal is the subject ; (why?) It is an element of the secona 

class, since it has one word (steal) to express an idea, 
and another (to) to represent its relation. (See Rem. 
p. 120.) 

Is base is the predicate ; (why ?) It is of the second form, 

having the attribute base to express the predicate 
idea, and is, the copula, to represent its relation, (predi- 
cate relation.) 

" The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Brother is the subject. 

Usurped is the predicate. 

The subject, brother, is limited by the phrase "of Richard," an adjective 
element of the second class, denoting the family re- 
lation of " brother," and " Richard ; " it is equivalent 
to " Richard's." " Of " is the connective, and " Rich- 
ard" is the object. 

Of . is a preposition, and shows the relation of " Richard " 

to " brother," according to Rule XIII. 

Richard is a proper noun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, objective case, and is the ob- 
ject of the preposition " of," according to Rule 
XI V. 

" We left on Tuesday." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 

proposition. 

We is the subject, and 

heft is the predicate. 

We is not limited. 

Left is limited by the phrase " on Tuesday," which denotes 

the time of leaving, and is an adverbial element of the 

second class; on is the connective, and Tuesday is 

the object. 
On is a preposition, and shows the relation between "Tues 

day" and " left," according to Rule XIII. 
Tuesday is a noun, &c., and is the object of " on," according 

to Rule XIV. 

** The wnole course of his life has been distinguished by generous actions " 
It is a simple declarative sentence ; (why ?) 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Course is the subject ; * (why ?) 

Has been distinguis/ied is the predicate ; (why ?) It is an element of tii i 
second form ; of which distinguisiued is tl e attribute, 
expressing the idea of the predicate, and Juts been is the 
copula or connective, showing the predicate relation ; 
been denotes completion, and has been, present com- 
pletion. 

Course is limited by t h e zcvAiohole; (describe them ;) also by 

the phrase of his life, a complex adjective element ^f 
the second class, of which life is the object, expressing 
the idea, and of is the preposition or connectiv *, show- 
ing the adjective relation. It is an adjective element, 
because it is joined to a noun to limit its meaning ; 
complex, because the object, life, is limited by his, (an 
adjective element of the first class ;) of the second 
class, because the word life is joined to course by the 
connective of forming the phrase " of life." The com- 
plex subject is, The whole course of his life, because it 
is the simple subject, with all its modifications. 

The predicate, has been distinguished, is modified by the phrase by generous 
actions, a complex adverbial element of the second 
class, of which actions is the object, expressing the 
idea, and by is the preposition, representing the adver- 
bial relation. It is an adverbial element, because it is 
added to the verb has been distinguished, and answers 
the question how ; complex, because the object, actions, 
is limited by generous ; (describe it ;) -of the second 
class, because the word actions is joined to distinguished 
by the connective by, forming the phrase by actions. 

The comphx predicate is, has been distinguished by generous actions. 

Note. — The thorough and minute method of analysis, like the above, should be 
often resorted to, for the purpose of giving the learner accurate ideas of the elements 
and their relations. When these are understood, or occasionally, for the sake of 
variety, the brief method should be allowed, thus : course is the simple, and the 
whole course of his life is the complex subject ; has been distinguished is the simple, 
and has been distinguished by generous actions, the complex predicate. Course is 
limited by the, whole, and of his life; has been distinguished is limited by the phrase 
by generous actions. 



EXERCISES. 

Now turn to the exercises in Construction, Sec. II., and analyze any of 
the examples. Construct and analyze examples of your own. 

III. Complex Sentences. 

,f Who was the author of Junius's Letters has never been satisfactorily 
determined." 

It is a complex declarative sentence ; complex, because 
it contains a principal and a subordinate proposition ; 
declarative, because it expresses a declaration. The 



* When tlie term subject or predicate is used alone, the grammat cal subject or predi- 
cate is always understood. 



SYNTAX MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 155 

entire sentence (since the subject is the snoordinate 
Clause) is the principal proposition, and the subject of 
the sentence, namely, " Who was the author of 
Junius's Letters," is the subordinate substantive prop- 
osition. " Who was the author of Junius' 's Letters " * 
is the subject of the principal proposition. 

H:is bee*i dettrmuud is the simple, and has never been satisfactorily deter- . 
mined is the logical predicate. Has been determined 
is modified by never and satisfactorily ; (describe them.) 

Wlio is both the subject and connective of the subordinate 

clause ; as connective, it is subordinate, but as a sub- 
let cannot depend on any superior term, there is 
nothing to which the subordinate clause (as subject) 
can be joined ; hence who is here a connective without 
an antecedent term. As a pronoun, it is an interroga- 
tive used in a subordinate clause (see Rem. 2, page 
49,) and hence has no definite antecedent. 
Vas author is the simple, and ivas the author of Junius' s Letters is the 
complex predicate ; author is limited by the and by of 
Junius' s Letters. 

" A man who finds not satisfaction in himself, seeks for it in vain else- 
where." 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains two dis- 
similar clauses. "A man seeks for it in vain else- 
where " is the principal, and " who finds not satisfac- 
tion in himself" is the subordinate adjective clause. 

Man .is the subject of the principal clause. 

Set&j is the predicate. 

The subject .... is limited by " a," also by the adjective clause, "who 
finds not satisfaction in himself," which describes 
" man." 

The complex subject is " A man who finds not satisfaction in himself." 

The predicate ... is limited by " for it," "in vain," and "elsewhere." 

The ctmplex predicate is " seeks for it in vain elsewhere." 

Who is the subject of the adjective clause. 

Finds is the predicate. 

The pi plicate ... is limited, first, by "not; " secondly, by "satisfac- 
tion ; " and thirdly, by " in himself." 

Who is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular 

number, masculine gender, according to Rule V. ; it is 
the subject of the proposition, "who finds," &c., ac- 
cording to Rule I., and connects this proposition with 
"man," the subject of the principal clause, according 
to Rule XYI. 

" Do you know that you have wronged him ? " 

It is a complex sentence, because it is composed of 
dissimilar clauses; interrogative, because it asks a 
question ; direct, because it can be answered by yes or 



* Strictly speaking, " Who was author " is the grammatical, and "Who was the au- 
thor of Junius'* Letters " the logical subject. Ba r , unless great accuracy is required, 
the entire proposition may be regarded as simple, except when it contains in itself a 
subordinate proposition. 



15G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

no. " Do you know " is the principal, and " that you 
have wronged him," the subordinate substantive 
clause. 

You is the subject of the principal clause. 

Do knoio is the predicate. 

The predicate ... is limited by " that you have WTonged him," an ob- 
jective element, denoting what is known. It is used 
as a noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, and is the object of "do know," according to 
Rule VIII. " Do know that you have wronged him " 
is the complex predicate. 

You is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Have wronged ... is the predicate. 

The predicate . . . is limited by "him," a simple objective element, show- 
ing whom. 

That . is a subordinate conjunction, and connects the sub- 
stantive clause, " you have wronged him," to the 
predicate of the principal clause, " know," according 
to Rule XV. 

" When the wicked are multiplied, transgression increaseth." 

It is a complex sentence. (Why ?) " Transgression 
increaseth " is the principal, and " when the wicked 
are multiplied," the subordinate clause. 

Transgression ... is the subject of the principal clause. 

Increaseth is the predicate. 

The predicate ... is limited by " when the wicked are multiplied," an 
adverbial clause denoting time. (See Rule IX.) The 
complex predicate is, " increaseth when the wicked 
are multiplied." 

Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Are multiplied ... is the predicate. 

When is a subordinate connective, (conjunctive adverb of 

time,) and joins the adverbial clause, which it intro- 
duces, to the predicate of the principal clause, accord- 
ing to Rule XV. It limits "are multiplied" and 
"increaseth," according to Rule IX. 

" The Cynic who twitted Aristippus, by observing that 
the philosophy who could dine on herbs might despise 
the company of a king, was w r ell replied to by Aris- 
tippus, when he remarked, that the philosopher who 
could enjoy the company of a king might also des- 
pise a dinner of herbs." 

Tins is a complex sentence, containing seven clauses, one principal, and 
six subordinate. 

(1.) The Cynic was well replied to by Aristippus , 
(2.) Who twitted Aristippus by observing ', 

(3.) That the philosopher might despise the company of a king, 
(4.) Who could dine on herbs, 
(5.) When he remarked, 

(6.) That the philosopher might also despise a dinner of herbs t 
(7.) Who can enjoy the company of a king. 
The first is the principal clauss, and the others are subordinate. 
Cynic is the subject of the principal clause. 



SYNTAX CLAUSES MODELS. 151 

Was replied to ... is the predicate. 

The subject, Cynic, is limited by * who twitted Aristippus by observing. 
&c., a complex adjective element of the third class , 
44 who "is the connective and subject, " twitted " is 

the predicate, and is limited, first, by " Aristippus," a 
simple objective element of the first class, and also by 
" by observing that the philosopher might despise the 
company of a king," a complex adverbial element of 
the second class ; " by observing " is the basis, " by " 
is the connective, and " observing " is the object . 
" observing " is limited by " that the philosopher 
might despise the company of a king," a complex 
objective element of the third class, of which " that " 
is the connective; "philosopher" is the subject, and 
is limited by " who could dine on herbs," an adjective 
element of the third class; "might despise " is the 
predicate, and is limited by " the company of a king," 
a complex objective element of the first class. 
The predicate, was replied to, is limited, first, by " well," a simple adverbi- 
al element of the first class, and by " by Aristippus," an 
adverbial element of the second class, and also by the 
clause " when he remarked, that the philosopher,*' 
&c, a complex adverbial element of the third class, of 
which " when " is the connective, " he " is the subject, 
and " remarked" is the predicate ; " " remarked " is 
limited by "that the philosopher," &c, a complex 
objective element of the third class, of which " that" 
is the connective, " philosopher " is the subject, " the 
philosopher who could enjoy the company of a king " 
is the logical subject, " might despise " is the predi- 
cate, and " might also despise a dinner of herbs " is 
the logical predicate; the subject, "philosopher," is 
limited by the clause " who could enjoy the company 
of a king," a complex adjective element of the third 
class, of which " who" is the connective and subject, 
" could enjoy " is the predicate, and is limited by " the 
company of a king," a complex objective element of 
first qlass ; the predicate " might despise " is limited 
Dy " a dinner of herbs," a complex objective element 
of the first class, of which " dinner " is the basis, and 
is limited by "of herbs," a simple adjective element 
of the second class. 



EXERCISE. 

Analyze any of the sentences in " Construction,'" Sec. III. 

11 A ship gliding over the leaves, is a beautiful object."' 

This is a simple sentence, or, more properly a con 
traded complex. 

Ship is the simple, and 

A ship gliding over the waves is the complex subject. 

Is object is the simple, and 

Is a beautiful object is the complex predicate. 

The subject, ship, . . is limited by " gliding over the the waves," a complex 
adjective element of the first class; it is equivalent 
to ** which glides over the waves," and is therefore an 
abridged proposition, obtained by dropping the subject 

14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



and connective " which," and changing M glides," the 
predicate, into the participle " gliding." 
is limited -by " a " and "beautiful." 



iV. Sentences having Coordinate Parts. 

" Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers." 

It is a partial or contracted compound sentence.* 

Soerate* and Plato . form the compound subject, because they are united 
by " and," and have a common predicate, " we**i 
philosophers." 

The subject . . . . is not limited. 

The predicate ... is limited by " distinguished," an adjective element 
of the first class, used to describe " philosophers." 

And is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the two sim- 
ple subjects, according to Rule XL 

" You may buy books or slates." 

It is ^.partial or contracted compound sentence.* 

You is the subject. 

May buy is the predicate. 

You is not limited, 

May buy is limited by "books or slates," a compound objec- 
tive element of the first class, showing what may be 
bought. 

Or is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) showing 

that a choice is offered between " books " ana 
" slates," which are connected by it, according to 
Rule XI. 

M If men praise your efforts, suspect their judgment ; if they censure them, 
your own." 

It is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordi- 
nate parts ; each part consisting of a principal and & 
subordinate clause. 

The natural order would be, " Suspect the judgment of men, if they praise 
your efforts ; your own, if they censure them." 

There is an ellipsis of the principal clause in the second part ; this, if sup- 
plied, would be, " If they censure them, suspect youi 
own judgment." 

$ft the first part, "suspect their judgment " is the principal clause, and, 
" if men praise your efforts " the subordinate. In 
the second part, after the ellipsis is supplied, " sus- 
pect your own judgment" is the principal clause, and 
'* if they censure them " is the subordinate. " You" 
(understood) is the subject of the principal clause in 
the first part, " suspect " is the predicate ; it is lim- 
ited, first, by " their judgment," a complex objective 
element of the first class, used to answer the question 
M What?" and also by "if men praise your efforts," 
an adverbial element of the third class, denoting con* 
dition. (Analyze according to the model.) 



* Let the pupil become accustomed to completing such sentences by supplying 
ellipses, thus : Socrates was a distinguished philosopher, and Plato was a distinguish^ 
philosopher. 



SYNTAX RULES. 15(1 

*' You " (understood) is the subject ot the principal clause in the second 
part; "suspect" is the predicate; it is limited by 
" your own judgment," a complex objective element 
of the first class, and also by " if they censure them," 
an adverbial element of the third class, denoting con- 
dition, &c. 

the two coordinate parts of the sentence are connected by the adversative 

Conjunction "but" "r«fl»r«tr»nrl wVnVVi *1or»ritoc r»r»_ 

position or contrast. 



EXERCISES 

Analyze and parse the following sentences according to the models : — 

A noble income, nobly expended, is no common sight. 

Human foresight often leaves its proudest possessor only a choice of 
evils. 

Applause is the spur of noble minds ; the end and aim of weak ones. 

Grant graciously w r hat * you cannot refuse safely. 

Most men know what they hate ; few what they love. 

He who openly tells his friends all that he thinks of them must expect 
that they will secretly tell his enemies much that they do not think of 
him. 

That nations sympathize with their monarch's glory, that they are im- 

f>roved by his virtues, and that the tone of morals rises high when he that 
eads the band is perfect, are truths admitted with exultation, and felt 
with honest pride. 

Highly elated by his unexpected good fortune, he returned home. Sav- 
ing carefully the fruits of his labor, he at length was able to purchase a 
farm. 
A pretended patriot, he impoverished his country. 



III. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION. 

Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a prop- 
osition must be in the nominative case. 

Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a 
proposition after the finite verb to be, or any intransitive 01 
passive verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Rule III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender, number, and person. 

Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in num- 
ber and person. 

* What, as antecedent, is the objective element of the principal clause, and as rela- 
Cve g is the objective ele'nent of the subordinate clause. 



160 ENGLiSH GRAMMAR. 

Rule V. An adjective or participle must belong to some 
noun or pronoun. 

Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify 
another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same 
case. 

Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit another 
noun by denoting possession must be in the possessive case. 

Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective 
case. 

Rule IX. Adverts are used to limit verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the in- 
terjection, have no grammatical relation to the other parts 
of the sentence. 

Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect 
similar elements. 

Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two or 
moie nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 

(1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be in the plural 
number. 

(2.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must be of the same 
number as that which stands next to it. 

(3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the numbei 
of that one. 

Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation of 
its object to the word on which the latter depends. 

Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
preposition must be in the objective case. 

Rule XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis- 
similar elements. 

Rule XVI. The infinitive has the construction of the 
noun, with the signification and limitations of the verb, and 
when dependent, is governed by the word which it limits. 

Rule XVII. Participles have the construction of adjeo 
twes and nouns, and are limited like verfa 



SYNTAX — RULE I. — REMARKS. 161 

RULES, CAUTIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a 
proposition must be in the nominative case ; as, " Ccesar 
conquered Gaul." " To see the sun is pleasant." " That 
there will be an eclipse of the moon, has been predicted." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

We found the simple cottage of the artist. The gardens are full of the 
freshness and beauty. of morning. Would you see in what peace a Chris- 
tian can die ? Our steamer staggered in the current. A curious echo is 
here. The accused was reconducted to his prison. I could not sustain 

the picture of confinement which my fancy had drawn. * rose, and 

prepared to leave the abbey. The must come, when the shall 

twine round the fallen columns. Now fades the glimmering on the 

sight. That the king can do no wrong, is admitted without reluctance. 
To conquer Gaul was Caesar's purpose in his campaign. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples in which the subject shall be a noun or pronoun, mas- 
culine, singular ; five in which it shall be feminine, plural ; five in which 
it shall be neuter, singular ; five in which the subject is a group of words. 

Caution. Never use the objective as the subject of a finite 
verb. Say, I did it, not me did it. 

Examples to be corrected and parsed : — 

You and me will go together. Him that is studious will improve. She 
found the place sooner than us. Them that seek wisdom will be wise. 
They are people whom one would think might be trusted. Who told you 
the story ? Him and her. I know it as well as him or her. Who saw the 
eclipse ? Us. Here's none but thee and I. They have more friends than 
me. Them are the ones. 

Model.' — " You and me will go together " is incorrect, because the ob- 
jective pronoun me is made the subject of the verb will go ; but by Cau- 
tion I., the objective should never be used as the subject of a finite verb. 
Correct, " You and I will go together." 

Rem. 1. — An infinitive, a substantive clause, or any thing that may be 
used as a noun, may be the subject; as, u To steal is base." " That you 
have wronged me doth appear in this." " S is a consonant." 

Rem. 2. — Although every subject of a finite verb must be in the nom- 
inative case, every nominative case is not the subject of a verb. The 
predicate noun, or pronoun, after a finite verb, is put in the nominative ; 
a noun or pronoun, in apposition with the subject or predicate nominative, 
is put in the nominative ; the noun denoting the person addressed is 
put in the nominative ; a noun with a participle or an infinitive, in an 
abridged proposition, may be in the nominative ; a noun used in a mero 
exclamation is put in the nominative. See Rule X. 

Rem. 3. — The subject is usually omitted in the imperative mode, and 
* When Hanks occur, words are to be supplied and parsed by th« pupil. 

14* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

after than, while, ichen, if or though, as, when the verb is made one of tn* 
terms of comparison ; as, " Arise.'* " Go." " He reads as well as [he] 
writes." " We shall go, if [it is] possible." 

Rem. 4. — The subject is commonly placed before the predicate, but is 
sometimes placed after it; as, " Were I not Alexander, I would be 
Diogenes." 

Rem. 5. — In an abridged proposition, the subject may remain un- 
changed, may be changed, or may be wholly dropped. 

(1.) It remains unchanged when it denotes a different person or thing 
from that of the principal clause, and (though logically it is still the sub- 
ject) is said to be in the nominative case absolute, with the participle of the 
predicate ; as, " When shame is lost, all virtue is lost." " Shame being 
lost, all virtue is lost." 

(2.) It is changed to the possessive case when the abridged predicate, 
as a noun, becomes the object of its possession ; as, " I was not aware 
that he was going." " I was not aware of his going." 

(3.) It is changed to the objective case when it follows a transitive verb, 
and is followed by the infinitive of the predicate, or (when the infinitive is 
omitted) by the attribute of the predicate ; as, " We supposed that he 
was writing, teas honest, or was the commander." " We supposed him to 
be writing, to be honest, or to be the commander ; " or, (omitting the infini- 
tive,) " We supposed him writing, supposed him honest, supposed him 
the commander." 

(4.) It is dropped when it represents the subject or object of the princi- 
pal clause, or, in general, when it represents the noun which the subordi- 
nate clause limits ; as, " I wish that I might go" " I wish to go." " Re- 
proof which is given in public hardens the heart." "Reproof given in 
public hardens the heart." See " Abridged Propositions," page 187. 

Rem. 6. — The nominative case absolute is sometimes omitted; as, 
" Allowing this to be so, what then ? that is, " We allowing." 

Rem. 7. — The object of the verb in the active voices becomes its subject 
in the passive voice ; as, " John granted the Magna Charta " = The Magna 
Charta was granted by John. 

Examples to be corrected and parsed by the Remarks under Ride /.* 
A is an article. We shall return as soon as possible. Eepeat the lesson as I shall 
dictate. They sing as well as play. Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have 
give 1 thee I was not aware of his being her cousin. We supposed that he was go- 
ing. We supposed him to be going. His work being finished, he will be able to 
leave May she be happy Who broke this knife? Me. You are as old as her 
Paul — — - was there ! know - — - say est it ; says thy life the same? The t's are 
not crossed. It is certain that the offender will be punished. 

Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a 
proposition, after the finite verb to be, or any intransitive or 
passive verb, Tiust be in the nominative case ; as, " I am he." 
" He is a scholar." 



* To ths Teacher. — It is recommended that the exercises on the Remarks be de 
ferred till the pupil shall go through the book a second or third time. The words in 
Italics are to be corrected. The blanks are to be filled. The sentences are to be ana. 
!yzed, and any or all of the words to be parsed. It is thought best to throw in 
the examples promiscuously without a definite reference to the Remarks, that the pu- 
Dil may learn to search and apply for himself, as he is now supposed to have acquired 
aome skill in analyzing and parsing. 



SYNTAX — RtfLE II. — REMARKS. 1G3 

Examples to be parsed : — 

A life of prayer is the life of heaven. He returned a friend who came 
ft foe. Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he ? No contemptible orator 
he was. The tree was called the " Charter Oak." John was called the 
beloved disciple. He was elected governor by a large majority. He 
died a madman. It will remain a monument of his greatness. You are 
my friend. It could not be she. Has he been a student ? His meat was 
locusts and wild honey. 

Construct , analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples in which the noun or pronoun shall be masculine plu- 
ral ; Jive in which it shall be feminine singular ; Jive in which it shall be a 
noun, or a group of words, neuter singular. 

Caution. The attribute after a finite verb should never 
be in the objective. Say, It is J, not me. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

It is me. It is them that must be blamed. I would do so, if I were 
him. Whom do you think it is ? It may have been her. I do not know 
whom it is. It is not me ; it is her. Whom do men say that I am ? 

Rem. 1. — The predicate nominative always denotes the same person or 
thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case. When the predicate 
nominative denotes a person, it usually agrees with the subject in gender, 
number, and case. 

Rem. 2. — By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neuter pro- 
noun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as predicate of any 
number, person, or gender; as, " It is I.*' " It is they." " It is James." 
" It is she." 

Rem. 3. — This rule applies when copulative verbs are used ; as, " He 
is becoming an artist." 

Rem. 4. — An infinitive or substantive clause may be used as the predi- 
cate nominative; as, "To live is to exist." "My impression is, that 
he will come." 

Rem. 5. — In an abridged proposition, (see "Abridged Propositions," 
page 185,) the predicate nominative may remain unchanged, may be 
changed, but can never be dropped. 

(1.) It remains unchanged in the nominative w r hen the subject remains 
in the nominative ; as, " As a youth was their leader, what could they 
do ? " "A youth being their leader, what could they do ? " Here 
leader is in the nominative, after the participle being, because youth is in 
the nominative. 

(2.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, relating logically (not 
grammatically) to the omitted or altered subject, when, in connection with 
the infinitive, or participle of the copula, it forms a verbal noun ; as, 
" That one should be a thief, is strange." " Being a thief, or to be a 
thief, is strange." " I was not aware that it was he." " I was not 
aware o/'its being he." Here thief said he are in the nominative after be- 
ing, or to be, because the subject, being either changed to the possessive or 
dropped, has no power over the predicate noun. 

(3.) It is changed to the objective when the subject is changed to the 
objective, or when the noun which the omitted subject would represent (see 
Rem. 5. (4) Rule I.) is in the objective; as, " I believed that it was he." 
" I believed it to be him." " We found a plant which is called the lilac.'' 
" We found a plant calted the lilac." Here he becomes him., because it 
is ehanged to the objective, and lilac is in the objective, because, which 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

oeing dropped, it derives its case from the antecedent, plant. Had plant 
been in the nominative, as in the following, " The plant which is called 
the lilac is fragrant," lilac would have been in the nominative, after the 
change of the adjective clause; as, " The plant called the lilac is fra- 
grant." 

Rem. 6. — The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate, but by 
the subject nominative; as, " Apples are fruit." " His food was vege- 
tables." 

Rem. 7. — The predicate nominative is commonly placed after the verb, 
and the subject nominative before it ; but in questions, both direct and 
indirect, this order is not observed ; as, " Is that the master f " " Who is 
he ? " that is, " He is who f " 

Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule II. 

He became his faithful . To teach is to . Mr. being their 

teacher, they made rapid progress. Being a stranger, he was very lonely. I know 
not who thou art. I believed it to be him. They believed it to be 7. Who do you sup- 
pose it to be ? 51 e was not known to be a . A man he was to all the country 

dear. She is the person who I understood her to be. His pavilion were dark waters, 
and thick clouds of the sky. We found an animal called a weasel. 

Rule III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender, number, and person ; as, " Those men who are most 
consistent are not more unlike to others than they are at times 
to themselves." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too. Other 
sheep I have, which are not of this fold. 

This is the friend of whom I spoke. He who had no mercy upon others 
is now reduced to a condition which may excite the pity of his most im- 
placable enemy. 

At sea, every thing that breaks the monotony of the surrounding ex- 
panse attracts attention. They found that all their efforts were unavail- 
ing. That life is long which answers life's great end. He is the friend 
whose arrival is daily expected. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Six Examples in which a personal pronoun shall be in the nominative 
singular ; six in which a personal pronoun shall be possessive singular ; 
six in which the personal pronoun shall be objective plural ; six in which a 
relative pronoun shall be in the nominative singular, three referring to 
persons, and three to things or animals ; six in which the relative shall be 
in the possessive or objective case ; six in which an interrogative pronoun 
shall be used, two in the nominative, two in the possessive, and two in 
the objective. 

Caution I. Avoid the use of a noun and pronoun as sub- 
ject jr object of the same verb, unless great emphasis is re< 
quired. Say, The boy did it, not, the boy, he. 

Examples to be corrected: — 

Many words they darken speech. That girl she is very ignorant. Th« 
king he was very angry. Anna, she told me so. The teacher approving 
"a&e plan, he immediately adopted it. Whom when they had washed, they 
'*3d her in an upper chamber, What he said, he is now sorry for it. 



SYNTAX — RULE HI. CAUTIONS AND REMARKS 165 

Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural pronoun having 
a singular antecedent. Say, Let every one attend to his, 
not their, work. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

Let each scholat who thinks so raise their hands. A person can con- 
tent themselves on small means. Let everyone answer for themselves. 
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. Can any one b« 
sure that they are not deceived ? 

Caution III. In the use of a pronoun, avoid ambiguity in 
its reference to an antecedent. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

Thou hast no right to be a judge, who art a party concerned. A hawk 
caught a hen, and eat her in her own nest. A purse was lost in the street 
which contained a large sum of money. There are millions of people in the 
empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Caution IV. Never place a pronoun of the first person he- 
fore a noun or pronoun of the second or third, or one of the 
third, before one of the second. Say, George, and you, and 
I, not I, and you, and George, will go. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

I and you may go, if I and he can agree. I, and you, and Harriet are 
going. Father said, that I and Henry should stay at home. When will 
Mary and you be ready ? Horace, and I, and you are invited. 

Caution V. Avoid the use of who, when speaking of ani- 
mals and inanimate objects, and of which, when speaking of 
persons. Say, The cat which mews, not who. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. He has a 
soul who cannot be influenced by such motives. This is the dog whom 
my father bought. The lady which we saw was hi fhly educated. He has 
some friends which I am acquainted with. The j adge which pronounced 
the sentence was an upright man Those which desire to be happy should 
be careful to do that which is right. 

Caution VI. Avoid a change of number, or a change of 
pronouns, when reference is made to the same antecedent in 
the same sentmce. 

Examples to y ie corrected :— 

Though thou art wise, you sometimes misjudge. Do thyself no harm, 
and no one will harm you. This is the man who discovered our distres*, 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and that brought us relief. I know you, who thou art ti.at annoyest me 
at thy gate. O thou who art all- wise, and that rulest over all 1 

Rem. 1. — Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown 
to the speaker ; and hence the gender, number, and person must be as- 
sumed, till the person or thing inquired for becomes known. Although 
the pronoun in such cases may not agree with the actual object in ques- 
tion, consistency should be preserved in every reference to the assumed 
one. The following sentence is wrong, owing to a change of number in 
the supposed object. " Who was not charmed with the music they 
heard just now ? " Was should be changed to were, or they to he. 

Rem. 2. — The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the 
third person, which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous use of 
they, referring to person, any one, or some one, has been adopted even by 
respectable writers, to conceal the gender or to avoid an awkward use of 
he, or she, thus: "If any one would test these rules for the preservation 
of health, they (he or she) must persevere in all states of the weather." 
The want of such a pronoun is still more apparent when the speaker has 
a definite person before his mind, and wishes to conceal the gender, thus : 

" The person who gave me this information desired me to conceal 

name." When the person referred to belongs to an assemblage, known 
to be composed wholly of males, or wholly of females, the masculine or 
feminine pronoun should be used accordingly. But when the person be 
longs to an assemblage of males and females, usage has sanctioned the 
employment of a masculine pronoun, thus : " Is any among you afflicted ? 
let him " (not them, — not him or her) " pray." 

Rem. 3. — When a pronoun refers to a collective noun in the singular, 
it shonld be neuter singular, if the noun conveys the idea of unity ; as, 
"The school wns opened under favorable auspices; but it was dismissed 
for want of patronage." But when the noun conveys the idea of plurali- 
ty, the pronoun should be plural, taking the gender of the individuals 
composing the collection ; as, " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as 
their chief good." 

Rem. 4. — When things or animals are personified, they should be rep- 
resented as persons by the pronouns employed ; as, " Grim darkness furls 
his leaden shroud." " The wolf who from the nightly fold fierce drags 
the bleating prey." 

Rem. 5. — The pronoun it does not always refer to a definite object. 
See " Etymology," page 41, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 6. — The pronoun usually follows its antecedent, but sometimes 
it is placed first ; as/ " Hark ! they whisper, angels say." 

Rem. 7- — Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed at the 
beginning of their clauses, even though the order of construction would 
assign them some other position ; as, " Paternus had but one son, whom 
he educated himself." 

Rem. 8. — The relative in the objective is sometimes omitted ; as, 
•• Here is the present [which] he gave me." 

Rem. 9. — In disposing of a personal pronoun, two rules should be 
given, one for its agreement, and one for its construction : in disposing of 
a relative, we should add to these the rule for it as a connective. 

Rem. 10. — The construction of the relative is independent of its ante- 
cedent. It may be in the nominative case, as subject of a finite verb — 
nominative absolute, possessive case, or in the objective case governed by a 
transitive verb, or by a preposition ; as, " They who speak." " We ordered 
the horses to be harnessed, which being done, we commenced our jour- 
ney." " He hastened to the palace of his sovereign, into ivhose presence 
his hoary locks and mournful visage soon obtained admission." " The 
person whom I saw." " Whom did vou take him to be." See Rem. 10 



SYNTAX RULE IV. — CAUTIONS. 167 

Rale VIII. " The man whom they call the janitor." " This is the rule 
to which we called his attention." 

Hem. 11. — The relative, when used in a restrictive sense, joins the prop- 
osition which it introduces to the antecedent, imparting to the clause the 
qualities of an adjective. When thus used, it commonly has, prefixed 
to the antecedent, a correlative, such as the, this, that, these, those ; the ad- 
jective clause becomes a necessary addition to the antecedent to complete 
the limitation intimated by these words. When not used in a restrictive 
sense, the relative introduces an additional proposition, and is equivalent 
to and he, and she, and, it, and they ; as, " He gave me a book, which 
he requested me to read " = H<* gave ine a book, and he requested me to 
read it. 

Rem. 12. — When the relative is governed by a preposition, it is gener- 
ally best to place the latter at the beginning of the clause ; as, " This ig 
the subject to which he alluded," not which he alluded to. But when the 
relative that is thus governed, the preposition is always placed at the end ; 
as, " Here is the last bridge that we shall come to." It is better not to 
employ that when the governing preposition is understood ; it is, however, 
sometimes used ; as, " In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt sure- 
ly die." 

Rem. 13. — The relative that should be used, — 
• (1.) After the interrogative who ; as, " Who that marks the fire still 
sparkling in each eye," &c. 

(2.) After an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, " He was the last 
that left." 

(3.) After very, all, same ; as, " This is the very book that I want." 
" Is not this all that you ask ? " " He is the same person that I took him 
to be." 

(4.) When the relative refers to both persons and things ; as, " Here 
are "Cue persons zxA papers that were sent for." 

Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule III. 

She is handsome, and she has the misfortune of knowing it. Who was not delighted 

with the walk which they took in the- ? If any one would make progress, 

thy must resist temptation. Is anyone sad? let him seek the consolation of the 
gospel. Every one must judge of thpir own . He met crowds, who were go- 
ing up the streets. The council were divided in its sentiments. The lion said to the 
ass, which had been hunting with it. He found the books which he sought. He found 
that he had formed plans which could not be accomplished. He gave me an exercise, 
and requested me to correct it. He gave me an exercise which he requested me to cor- 
rect. This is the very which I need. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see 

It is the same which I showed you before. Who, who has any regard for his 

reputation, would act thus ? Many a man loses their character by such acts. I do 
not care who knows it. Whom the cap fits, let him put it on. Blessed is the man 
who feareth the Lord, and who keepeth his commandments. It was that Mary 
which anointed the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair, whose 
brother was sick 

Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in num 
bei and person ; as, u I am" " Thou art sitting" " Wt 
have come." 

Examples to be parsed ; — 

I do entreat thee. I do think you could contrive to find her employment 
if you are inclined to it. They will follow your advice. He gave up all hope 
of obtaining his object. Murmur at nothing. That the evidence of this 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

man's guilt will insure hi& condemnation, is admitted. To do to others a* 
we would have them do to us, is the golden rule. 

Construct^ analyze, and parse — 

Four Examples in which the verb shall be in the first or second per- 
son, present tense ; four in which it shall be in the third person, present 
perfect tense ; four in which the verb shall be second person singular, 
potential, present, or present perfect ; four in which it shall be present, 
past, or future, progressive form ; four in which it shall be passive, pres- 
ent perfect, past perfect, or future perfect; four in which it shall be sec- 
ond person singular, emphatic form; four in which it shall be used inter- 
rogatively in the indicative or potential ; four in which s/iall or will simply 
predict. 

Caution J. Avoid the use of a singular verb with a plu- 
ral subject, or a plural verb and a singular subject. 

Examples to be corrected : ~ 

"Where was you this morning when I called ? He dare you to do it. 
They was unwilling to go. Relatives agrees with their antecedents. 
There's ten of us going. His pulse beat quick. She have not done it. 
"Was you certain of it ? We was allowed the privilege. Circumstances 
alters cases. Has those books been sent home ? On one side was sloping 
banks. 

Caution II. Never use a singular verb with a collective 
noun intended to express plurality of idea ; or a plural verb 
with a collective noun intended to express unity of idea. 

Examples to bs collected : — 

The committee has accepted their appointment. The majority was dis- 
posed to adopt the measure which they at first opposed. Blessed is the 
people that know the joyful sound. The fleet were seen sailing up the 
channel, where afterwards it anchored. The peasantry goes barefoot with- 
out endangering their health. There are a flock of birds. The public is 
requested to attend for then own benefit. All the world is spectators of 
your conduct. The regiment consist of two thousand men. The church 
have no power to adopt the measure which it advocates. 

Caution III. Never use a plural verb with a singular sub- 
ject, though the latter be modified by a noun in the plural. 
Say, Each of his brothers is well, not are well. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

Four years' interest were expected. The derivation of these words are 
uncertain. The story, with all its additions, were believed. The increase 
of his resources render the change necessary. The number of applicants 
increase. The general, with all his soldiers, were taken. The sale of the 
goods take place to-morrow. The hope of retrieving his losses increase 
his diligence. 

Caution IV. Be careful not to use the wrong verb, as, 
set for sit, lay for lie, come for go ; nor the wrong form, 



SYNTAX RULE V. 169 

as, done for did, wrote for written, &c. ; nor the WRONG 

TENSE, as, SEE for SAW, GIVE for GAVE ; nor i'IPROPER CON- 
TRACTIONS, as, ain't for are not, &c. 

Examples to be corrected: — 

I seer> him when he done it. Some one has broke my pencil. Tell them 
to set s^..U She laid down by the fire. He soon begun to be weary of the 
employ nent. I am going to lay down. Mary has wrote a letter. I see 
him when he went. Ain't it true ? We ain't going this evening. He has 
drunk too much. The tree has fell. You have not did as I told you. 
John his stole the knife. They are going to our house next week. He 
give me a great many books. He knowed his lesson better than Henry. 
They had sang very well. I have lain your book on the shelf. Will you 
sit the pitcher on the table, and let it set there. The ship lays in the 
harbor. I done my sums first. 

Rem. 1. — To this rule there are properly no exceptions. The collec- 
tive noun in the singular may take a plural verb, but never except when 
the mind sees in it a collection of individuals. 

Rex 2. — The nominative and verb after many a (an) should be sin- 
gular ; as, " Full many a flower is born to Wush unseen." 

Rem. 3. — Verbs in the imperative mod'; usually agree with thou, ye, 
or you, understood. 

Rule V. An adjective or participle must belong to some 
noun or pronoun ; as, " The guilty man ; " = " The man 
was guilty" Or, more specifically, — 

(1.) An adjective or participle used as the attribute of a proposition after 
the verb to be, or any intransitive or passive verb, belongs to the subject ; 
as, " The tree is tall" " To see the sun is pleasant." " Where the funds 
will be obtained is doubtful.** 

(2.) An adjective or participle used to limit or qualify a noun belongs 
to the noun which it modifies ; as, "An upright judge." "Five boxes." 
" The good old man." 

Examples to be analyzed or parsed : — 

When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted 
for joy, where wast thou ? The influence of such pursuits is ennobling. He 
was a good man, and a just. He was a burning and a shining light. These 
opportunities, improved as they should be, must produce the desired results. 
The hopes of the whole family were centred on him. His resources were 
inexhaustible. To insult the afflicted is impious. Pity the sorrows of a 
poor old man, whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door. That 
he should refuse such a proposition, was not unexpected. Every thing 
which is false, vicious, or unworthy, is despicable to him, though "all the 
world should approve it. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples in which a limiting adjective shall modify the subject, 
five in which a qualifying adjective shall modify the predicate nominative ; 

' ce in which a limiting and qualifying adjective shall modify the object of 
:i verb, or preposition ; five in which the qualifying adjective shall, with 
the copula, form the predicate ; five in which the adjective shall be in the 
comparative or superlative degree. 
15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Caution I. Never use the limiting adjective (article) a 
before the sound of a vowel, nor an before the sound of a con- 
sonant. Say, An apple, not a apple. 

Examples to be corrected: — 

He found a acorn in the woods. He was a honorable man It is an 
wonderful invention. He is an younger man than we thought. She 
showed an uniform adherence to truth. This is an hard saying. 

Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural adjective to limit 
a singular noun. Say, This sort of people, not those. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

I do not like remarks of these kind. Those sort of people are very dis- 
agreeable. Will you buy six pair of boots ? I have bought eight foot of 
wood. It cost a thousand pound. The lot is fifty foot in width. The 
water is six fathom deep. We walked three mile in a short time. He 
ordered ten ton of coal. 

Caution III. Never use the pronoun them, for the adjec- 
tive those. Say, Those books, not them books. 

Examples to be corrected: — 

I found them books on the table. "Which of them scholars recites the 
best ? Go and tell them boys to come here. Ask them children to bring 
them apples here. 

Caution IV. Avoid the use of the adjective for the ad- 
verb. Say, Speak promptly, not prompt. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

She dresses neat. The time passed very quick. The ship glides 
smooth over the water. The stream flows silent on. It is not such a great 
distance as I thought it was. He behaved much wiser than the others. 
Mary speaks French very fluent. I am exceeding sorry to hear such 
tidings. 

Caution V. Avoid the use of the superlative degree when 
two objects are compared, or the comparative when more than 
two are compared. 

Examples to be corrected • — 

He was the larger of them all. He was the oldest of the two brothers. 
He preferred the latter of the three. Which is the oldest of the two ? 
John is the wisest of the two. 

Caution VI. Avoid the use of double comparatives and 
superlatives. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee. Thii 
was the most unkindeat cut of all. The rose is most tairest of all flowers 



SYNTAX RULE V. REMARKS. 171 

He is the most kindest friend I have. Solomon was more wiser thin any 
other king. 

Rem. 1. — The appropriate use of the adjective is to restrict the appli- 
cation of a noun used as a. common name applicable to each individual of a 
class. The adjective thus used is always a dependent term, having the 
restricted noun as its principal. 

Rem. 2. — A noun may be restricted or limited in its application, — 
(1.) Without affecting any of its properties; as, " Two men." " These 
books." 

(2.) By designating some property or quality ; as, " Good men." " In- 
oust nous boys." 

(3.) By identifying it ; as, "Paul the Apostle." " Peter the Hermit" 
(4.) By representing it as an object possessed; as, "David's harp." 
The first two limitations are affected by adjectives ; the last two oy 
W>uns ox pronouns performing the office of the adjective. 

Rem. 3. — Any word, or gioup of words, employed to limit a noun, is an 
adjective element, that is, it is of the nature of an adjective ; as, "Indus 
trious men." " Men of industry." " Men who are industrious." 

Rem. 4. — Limiting adjectives, when used in connection with qualifying, 
are generally placed first; as, " The old man." " This valuable hint." 
" Ten small trees." When two limiting adjectives are used, one of which 
is an article, the latter is usually placed first ; as, " The ten command- 
ments." But after many, such, all } what, and both the article stands next 
to the noun ; So also, after adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how ; as, 
"Many a man." "Such a man." "All the boys." " What a boy." 
" Both the girls." " Too great, as great, so great, how great, a man." 

Rem. 5. — A, or an, belongs to nouns in the singular number. But before 
few, hundred, or thousand, it seems to belong to a plural noun ; as, " A 
few men" " A hundred ships." " A thousand pounds" 

Rem. 6. — The belongs to nouns, either singular or plural ; as, " Th» 
man." " The men." 

Rem. 7. — When two or more qualifying adjectives belong to a noun 
representing but one object, the limiting adjective should not be repeated ; 
as, " A red and white flag ; " i. e., one flag having two colors. But when two 
or more such adjectives belong to a noun used to represent as many differ- 
ent objects as there are adjectives employed, the limiting adjective must 
be repeated ; as, " We saw a black, a white, a red, and&gray horse ; " i. e., 
four horses of different colors. 

Rem. 8. — Adjectives which imply number should agree in number 
with the nouns to which they belong ; as, "vl^men;" "Several men." 
When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and the other plural, 
the plural should generally be placed next to the noun ; as, " The first two 
lines," not, " The two first lines." In such expressions as, " Five yoke of 
oxen," " Ten head of cattle," " Fifty sail of vessels" the plural adjective 
belongs to a noun in the singular. 

Rem. 9. — When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first, and this 
to the last mentioned ; as, " Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; 
that tends to excite pride, this discontent." 

Rem. 10. — By a peculiar idiom, the is used with comparatives, to de- 
note proportionate equality and is used adverbially; as, " The more I see 
it, the better I like it." 

Rem. 11. — The adjective is often used as a noun, the noun to which it 
belongs being understood ; as, " The good are respected." On the other 
hand, the noun is often used as an adjective ; as, " Gold beads " See 
Idiomatic expressions, p. 193. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 12. — One adjective often limits the complex idea expressfd by 
mother adjective and a noun ; as, " Two old horses" 

Rem. 13. — The predicate, adjective or participle, following copidativt 
verbs, generally indicates the manner of the action, while, at the same 
time, it denotes some property of the subject ; as, " The boy was made 
sick " " The fruit tastes sweet." " The horse came galloping." 

Rem. 14. — When two objects, or sets of objects, are compared, the com- 
parative degree is generally used ; as, " George is taller than William, or is 
the taller of the two." " Our oranges are sweeter than yours" 

Rem. 15. — When more than two objects are compared, the superlative 
degree is used : as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks." 

Rem. 16. — When the comparative degree is used, the latter term should 
always exclude the former , as, " New York is larger than any other city 
of the United States." " He was wiser than his brothers." But when 
the superlative is used, the latter term should always include the former ; 
as, " Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States." 

Rem. 17. — Each, one, either, and neither belong to nouns in the third 
person singular. Hence, when used as nouns, verbs and pronouns should 
agree with them accordingly ; as, " Each of his brothers is (not are) 
well." 

Rem. 18. — An adjective after the participle or infinitive of the copula 
is sometimes used abstractly, referring, it may be, logically (but not gram- 
matically) to some indefinite object ; as, " To be good is to be happy." 

Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule V. 

Good men will he rewarded. William the Conqueror fought at the battle of Has- 
tings. Shakspeare's Hamlet has been much admired. Then they, that loved the 

Lord, spake often one to another. The ten commandments were given by - . 

The old has often been repeated. He gave a thousand for the house. 

She wore a blue and black silk dress. You may read the two first pages. Hope is as 
strong an incentive to action as fear; this is the anticipation of good, that of evil. 

Of all other idle habits, idleness is the most . Let each of them be heard in 

their turn. He is the most of all the rest. Every one of us have our faults. 

Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify 
another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same 
case; as, "William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the 
Saxon khig.^ 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. The Emperor Nero 
was a cruel tyrant. James, the royal Scottish poet, was imprisoned in 
Windsor Castle. In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, 
invaded France. Frederic William III., King of Prussia, son of Frederic 
William II., and Louisa, Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, was born Au- 
gust 3, 1770. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Three Examples in which the noun in apposition shall be in the 
nominative, modifying the subject ; three in which it shall be in the 
nominative, modifying the predicate noun ; three in which it shall be in 
the objective, modifying a noun, used as the object of a verb or preposi' 
tion. 

Hem 1. — The explanatory noun or pronoun must denote the same per- 
son or thing as that which it identifies. It usually explains by showing 
the office, rank, capacity, occupation, or character, of the principal term ; 
as, " Peter the Hermit." " John the Evangelist." 



SYNTAX — RULE VI. — REMARKS. 173 

Rem. 2. — When, for the sake of emphasis, the same name is repeated, 
It is in apposition with the, former ; as, " A horsey a horse! my kingdom for 
ahorse." 

Rem. 3. — When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally agrees 
with the limited, in number, gender, and case ; as, " Paul the Apostle." 

Rem. 4. — Two nouns may denote the same person or thing, and even 
be in the same case, but yet not in apposition. A noun in apposition as- 
sumes what by the predicate noun is affirmed ; as, " Adam, the first man." 
" Adam was the first man." Even when two nouns denoting the same 
person or thing become the objects of certain transitive (copulative) verbs, 
they are not properly in apposition. Compare " They called David the 
psalmist," with " They called David, the psalmist," that is, who was the 
psalmist. 

Rem. 5. — A noun or pronoun in the plural may be represented, not by 
one, but by two or more nouns, which, together, are equivalent to it ; as 
" The victims a brother and a sister." The reverse of this rule is equal- 
ly true; as, " Intemperance, oppression, and fraud, vices of the age." In 
the case of the reciprocal pronouns, each other, and one another, the first 
words, each and one, are in apposition with a preceding plural noun or 
pronoun, or with two or more singular nouns taken conjointly ; as, " The 
boys struck one an other "= The boys struck — one struck an other; 
" John and David love each other " = John and David love — each loves 
the other. Each and one are in the nominative case, and other is in the 
objective case. 

Rem. 6. — Two or more proper names, or a title and a proper name, ap- 
plied to one person, though in apposition, should be taken as one complex 
noun ; as, " George Washington." " General Gates." 

Rem. 7. — The proper name of a place, instead of being put in apposi- 
tion with the common name, is usually governed by the preposition of; as, 
" The city of Rome." 

Rem. 8. — A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, and 
sometimes a sentence with a noun ; as, " They devoted their whole time 
to the promotion of our happiness — attentions which we shall not soon for- 
get." " The maxim, Enough is as good as a feast, has silenced many a 
vain wish." 

Rem. 9. — When possessives are in apposition, the sign of possession 
C«s) is commonly used with only one of them ; as, " John the Baptist's 
head." " His majesty King Henry's crown." 

Hem. 10. Sometimes as, denoting capacity, rank, or office, intervenes be- 
tween two nouns, one of which is in apposition with the other ; as, " The 
moon as satellite attends." In the example, " I am pleased with my posi- 
tion as a teacher," teacher seems to be in apposition with the expression 
my position,, denoting the same person as my, but taking the same case as 
position. 

Examples to be -parsed and correct* d by the Remarks under Rule VI. 

Company, villanous company, hath been the spoil of me. Absalom, the of 

, died in battle. Marcus Tullius Cicero was a great . I am going to see 

ray friends in the country — they that we visited last summer. Clueen Victoria's chil- 
dren are carefully educated. 1 am pleased with her improvement as a scholar 

Jonathan and David loved each other. Go ye every man unto his own . 

Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred. He recovered — a result which was not 

expected. He permitted me to make use of his , a kindness which 1 sh3ll 

not soon forget. 

Rule VII. A noun or pronoun, used to limit another 
noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive caso 
15* 4 



S74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, " Stephen r s courage failed." " Their fortune was am- 
ple." " Whose work is this ? " 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The joy of 
his youth was great. Rotha's bay received the ship. Her ways are ways 
of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. A mother's tenderness, and 
a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's advantage. A chieftain's 
daughter seemed the ma^d. Yet my last thought is England's. She 
stooped her by the runnel's side. Hushed were his Gertrude's lips. Our 
harps we left by Babel's streams. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Twenty Examples in which a possessive noun, or pronoun, shall limit 
the subject, the predicate, a noun in apposition, or a noun in the objec- 
tive after a transitive verb or preposition. 

Caution I. In writing nouns in the possessive, never 
omit the possessive termination. Write man's, not mans. 

Examples to be corrected ; — 

On Lindens hills of blood-stained snow. It was the grand sultans pal 
ace. The nations hopes were blasted. Next Mars, Piazzis orb is seen., 
It is against the laws of Plutos empire. His brothers offence is not his. 
Midst glorys glance, and victorys thunder-shout. The mans story was 
false. If of Drydens fire the blaze is brighter, of Popes the heat is more 
regular and constant. 

Caution II. In using pronouns in the possessive, neve? 
insert the apostrophe, nor add the letter n. Write theirs. 
not theirs. Say his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, not hisn, 
hern, ourn, yourn, theirn. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

This book is your's. I listened to it's song. The slate is hisn. This 
map is their's. This knife is mine, and not yourn. That handkerchief 
is hern. These sheep are oum. Will you drive yourn out of the pasture ? 
Our's is a pleasant task. 

Caution III. Never make the limited noun plural because 
the possessive is plural. Say " their decision." not theii 
decisions, one only being meant. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

I will do it for your sakes. We intend, for our parts, to follow his ad 
vice. Their healths have improved. We will submit to our lots. It was 
Dot worth their whiles to remain so long in port. 

Rem. 1. — The relation of the possessive is one of dependence. There 
must, therefore, always be (expressed or understood) the name of the ob- 
ject possessed on which the possessive term depends. This dependence 
may be shown either by a change of termination, or by a preposition ; as, 
* My father's house " = The house of my father. " The king's court "' =» 



SYNTAX — RULE VIII. 175 

The court of the king. The possessive term always limits a noun, and 
Hence it performs the" function of an adjective, and in analyzing may be 
reckoned as an adjective element. 

Rem. 2. — The limited noun is often understood; as, "This pen is 
Mary's [pen]." " We worship at St. Paul's [church]." " This is a book 
of my brother's [books]." " Mine [that is, my task] is a pleasant task." 
After mine, thine, hers, oars, yours, and theirs, the limited noun is always 
understood. 

Rem. 3. — "When two or more words are used to designate one object, 
tne possessive sign is affixed to the last; as, " General George Washing- 
ton's administration." The sign of the possessive belongs to the group, 
and is sometimes applied when the last word is the object of a preposition ; 
as, " The King of England's death." Here England is in the objective 
after of. 

Rem. 4. — When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected 
coordinately ; first, if they imply the possession of one object in common, 
the sign is applied only to the last ; as, "Little and Brown's store ; " but, 
secondly, if they imply the possession of different objects, though of the 
same name, the possessive sign should be applied to each ; as, " I have an 
Emerson's and a Greenleaf's Arithmetic." 

Rem. 5. — The limited word is often a participial noun; as, "I am in 
favor of his bringing the dispute to a speedy close." 

Rem. 6. — Sometimes the possessive sign is annexed to an adjective 
used as a noun ; as " This is the wretched's only plea." 

Examples to be parsed and corrected by the Remarks under Rule VII. 

He is at the governor's. The Representatives House convened to-day. I assure you 
it is theirs. General Franklin Pierce's administration commenced on the fourth of 
March, 1853. John and James's letters have been received. Day and Martin's black- 
ing is celebrated. Lady, be thine the Christian's walk. 

Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective 
case ; as, " He found the object which he desired." 

Examples to be parsed : — 

Ambition makes the same mistake concerning power that avarice makes 
concerning wealth. If you have performed an act of great and disinter- 
ested virtue, conceal it. Imperial Rome governed the bodies of men, but did 
not extend her empire farther. In former times, patriots prided themselves 
on then- own poverty, and the riches of the state. He endeavored to in- 
culcate right principles. He sought to follow the example of the good. 
They say that they have bought it. The truly great consider, first, how 
they may gain the approbation of God. He inquired, " Who comes there r " 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples in which a noun, five in which a personal pronoun, 
five in which a relative pronoun, and five in which an interrogative pro- 
noun, shall be the object of a transitive verb ; also five in which two objects 
mall limit either of the verbs in Rem. 9 or 12. 

Caution I. Never use the nominative as the object of a 
transitive verb. Say, Whom did he visit ? not ivho. 



x!6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples to be corrected: — 

Who did you see yesterday ? Who did \ie marry ? They that help us we 
should reward. He who committed the o Sence thou shouldst puuish not 
I, who am innocent. Who should I find but my cousin ? Will you let Mm 
and I sit together ? I did not know who to send. 

Rem. 1. — When a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning 
of a transitive verb, without the aid of a preposition expressed or under- 
stood, it is called the direct object ; but when it is added to a verb, either 
transitive or intransitive, to show that to or for which any thing is, or is 
done, or that from which any thing proceeds, it is called the indirect ob- 
ject ; as, " Ellen gave an apple to her brother." 

Hem. 2. — When an indirect object precedes the direct, the preposition 
snould be omitted ; when it follows, it should be expressed as, " I lent 
him a book " = I lent a book to him. 

Hem. 3. — The indirect object is sometimes used alone witn intransitive 
verbs, sometimes with an adjective, and in a few instances with a noun ; 
as, " He spoke of his trials." " To me this rule is obvious." " To the 
hero that was a proud day." 

Rem. 4. — The object of a transitive verb may be an infinitive, or a sub- 
stantive clause ; as, " I love to write." " 1 have heard that he was sick." 

Rem. 5. — When a substantive clause is governed by the verb say, or its 
equivalent, — 

(1.) It is said to be quoted directly (oratio directa) when it expresses 
the thought of another in his own words ; as, " He said, I will go " 

(2.) It is said to be quoted indirectly (oratio obliqua) when it expresses 
the thought of another in the speaker's words ; as, " He said that he 
woidd go." 

Rem. 6. — Some intransitive verbs are followed by an object of kindred 
signification; as, " He ran a race." " She dreamed a dream." 

Rem. 7. — The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the 
passive; as, "Romulus founded Rome" .— Rome was founded by Romu- 
lus. 

Rem. 8. — To avoid ambiguity, the object should be placed after the 
verb, especially when the subject and object are both nouns; as, " Alex- 
ander conquered Darius" not, "Alexander Darius conquered ; " but when 
the subject or object is a pronoun, the form usually determines the rela- 
tion ; as, " Him followed his next mate." 

Rem. 9. — The following verbs, make, appoint, elect, create, constitute, 
render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon, and some 
others, not only take after them a direct object, but predicate of it another 
object, which may, therefore, be called its attribute. The attributive object 
may be either a noun, an adjective, or a verb. " They made him an officer."' 
" They made him sick." " They made him labor." Though it is evi- 
dent that the attributive object, when a noun, denotes the same per- 
son or thing as the first, it is by no means in apposition with it. In 
the case of apposition, the principal noun completes the meaning of the 
verb, and the second limits the first; as, " They called Miles, the carpen- 
ter." But in the case of two objects, (the object and its attribute,) both 
are necessary to complete the meaning of the verb ; as, " They called Miles 
a carpenter." In one case, the second noun has no grammatical relation 
to ths verb ; in the other, it is directly related, both to the verb and to the 
first noun. In the first example, "carpenter" should be parsed as a noun 
in the objective, put in apposition with the first, by Rule YI. In the sec- 
ond example, "carpenter" should be parsed as a noun in the objecti\e, 



SYNTAX RULE iX. ADVERBS. 177 

forming, in connection with " Miles" the object oi ** called" being also an 
attribute to the first object. In a similar way, parse "sick" and " labor" 
hi the above examples ; or one may be called the first, or principal, and 
the other the attributive object of the verb. 

Rem. 10. — This construction, in many instances, may be traced to an 
abridged proposition in which the infinitive has been dropped ; as, " They 
considered him a poet" that is, to be a poet. In fact, the infinitive of the 
copula is often expressed, the first object representing, in the objective, what 
was the subject nominative ; the second, in like manner, what was the 
predicate nominative before the proposition was abridged ; as, " I knew 
that he was a scholar." " I knew him to be a scholar." In such cases the 
infinitive and second noun form the attributive object of the verb, the 
second noun being in the objective after " to be." 

Rem. 11. — The infinitive of any verb may be the second or attributive 
object; the first object being its subject, and the two together forming a 
kind of abridged proposition; as, "They ordered the soldiers to march" 
" They ordered that the soldiers should march." 

Rem. 12. — The following verbs, buy, sell, play, sing, get, lend, draw, 
send, make, pass, write, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, present, 
throw, carry, ask, shoxo, order, promise, refuse, deny, provide, and some 
others, take after them, besides a direct object, an indirect object, showing 
to or from what the action tends ; as, " Give me a book." 

Rem. 13. — The indirect object is generally said to be governed by a 
preposition understood. 

Rem. 14. — When any of the above verbs assume the passive form, the 
direct object generally (though not always) becomes the subject; as, "A 
book was given me." The indirect object sometimes becomes the subject ; 
as, " He was asked his opinion." "I was taught grammar" Opinion 
and grammar are in the objective case after a passive verb. 

Rem. 15. — Instead of a single word, or an infinitive, a substantive 
clause may become one of the objects ; as, " He informed me that the boat 
had sailed." 

Exercises to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule VIII. 

Practice will make her a ready writer. Yet your mistrust cannot make me a trai- 
tor. Give that ring to me. He spoke of the diligent efforts which he had made. Let 
the end try the man. Joseph dreamed a dream. Then call we this the field of Agin- 
court. Darius Creesus conquered. I will give them an everlasting name. Thou 
shalt make his soul an offering for sin. But I exhort them to consider the Faerie 
Queen as the most precious jewel of their coronet. They denied me this privilege. 
I was denied this privilege. He was paid the money. You were paid a high com- 
pliment. He said, " If I tell you the truth, ye will not believe me." He said that he 
preferred to take a different course. I prayed that God would give him strength. 

Rule IX. Adverts are used to limit verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " Lightning moves swiftly." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed — 

You both are truly welcome. Speak softly, for a breath might wake her. 
Yet we may strongly trust his skill. How heavily her fate must weigh her 
down ! Freely to give reproof, and thankfully to receive it, is an indis- 
pensable condition of true friendship ! How happy they who wake no 
more . How soon man's earthly enjoyments pass away ! How easily are 
men diverted from a good cause ! 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Examples in which a verb, adjective, or an adverb shall be limited by 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adverbs, four denoting time, four, place, four, manner, four, nega- 
tion, or DEGREE. 

Caution I. Two negatives should never be employed to 
express a negation ; as, " I have no book," not, " I liavenH no 
book, 9 ' 

Examples to be corrected : — 

I will not take that course by no means. I did not like neither his prin- 
ciples nor his practice. I cannot write no more. Nothing never can justi- 
fy such conduct. He will never be no better. Neither he nor no one else 
believes the story. I never go nowheres. I am resolved not to trust him, 
neither now, nor any other time. Nj one knows neither the causes nor 
the effects of such influences. 

Caution II. Avoid the use of an adverb when the quality 
of an object, and not the manner of an action, is to be ex- 
pressed ; as, " The apple tastes sweet," not sweetly. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

His expressions sounded harshly. Satin feels very smoothly. Give him 
a soon and decisive answer. Such incidents are of seldom occurrence. 
The then emperor issued a decree. Did he arrive safely ? She seemed 
beautifully. 

Caution III. Avoid the use of no to express negation, 
with a verb or participle ; as, " I shall not change my course 
of action, whether you do or not," not no. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

Know now whether this be thy son's coat, or no. Tell me whether I 
shall do it, or no. I will ascertain if it is true, or no. 

Caution IV. Never use how before that, or instead of 
it ; as, " He said that he should come," not how he should 
come. 

Examples to be corrected': — 

He said how he believed it. She told me how that she would come if 
she could. He remarked how time was valuable. 

Rem. 1. — Some adverbs, instead of modifying any particular word, are 
either independent, or are used to modify an entire proposition ; as, yes, 
no, nay, amen, likewise truly, &c. " Will you go ? Yes." " Truly, God 
is good to Israel." 

Rem. 2. — Ary word or group of words performing the office of an ad- 
verb is called an adverbial element or expression. If it be a group of 
words, it should first be disposed of as an adverb, and then resolved into 
its component parts. See Analysis. 

Rem. 3. — An adverb or adverbial expression should be placed so near 
the word which it limits as to make its relation obvious ; yet no element 
of the sentence can be so easily transposed without causing ambiguity as 



SYNTAX RULE X. 179 

the adverbial. It may be placed at the beginning, m the middle, or at the 
end of the sentence ; as, " He carefully examined, the document " = Care- 
fully did lie examine the document. He examined the document carefully. 

Rem. 4. — Adverbs are used sometimes to limit the meaning of a prep- 
osition, sometimes a phrase; as, " He held his hand exactly over the 
place." " We were absent almost a year." 

Rem. 6. — Adverbs are themselves sometimes modified by phrases, oi 
clauses ; as, " He left four years afterwards." " He came some time ago." 
" He r sen faster than his brother." 

Rem. 6. — Conjunctive abverbs are complex words usually modifying 
two words, and at the same time joining an adverbial clause to the word on 
which it depends ; as, " We shall be present token the boat arrives " = We 
shall be present at the time at, or in which, the boat arrives. Here, when 
modifies present, instead of at the time, and arrives, instead of in which. 
It also connects " the boat arrives " to present. 

Examples to be parsed by the Remarks under Rule IX. 

Did ye not hear it ? No. He remained where the days of his youth were passed. 
He arose before the sun. The stream flowed silently on. They will be absent 
almost three years. It is impossible continually to be at work. He heard the news 
some time ago. And the rest will I set in order when I come. Verily I say unto 
you, Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

Rule X. The nominative case independent and the in- 
terjection have no grammatical relation to the other parts 
of the sentence. 

Five cases occur in which a noun or pronoun may be independent or 
absolute. It may be so — 

(1.) By direct address ; as, " Plato, t\vou reasonest well." 

(2.) By mere exclamation ; as, " my misfortune! " 

(3.) By pleonasm, or when the attention is drawn to an object before 
any thing is said of it ; as, " Harry's flesh, it fell away." " Gad, a troop 
shall overcome him." 

(4.) When in connection with a participle, it is equivalent to a proposi- 
tion, of which it was the subject before the former was abridged ; as, " He 
having ar^ved, we returned." 

(f5.) When, in an abridged proposition, it follows the infinitive or parti- 
ciple of the copula, and is uncontrolled by a preceding noun ; as, " I was 
not aware of his being a scholar" " To be a scholar requires industry and 
perseverance." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

Fair daffodils ! we weep to see you haste away so soon. day most calm, 
most bright ! the fruit of this, the next world's bud ! the week were dark 
but for this light. The pilgrim fathers, where are they ? He having given 
us the direction, we departed. I was not aware of his being the preacher 
O the times ! O the manners ! Ah, father ! these are wondrous words. 
The savage rocks have drunk thy blood, my brother ! 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples containing an interjection, and two for each of the fivo 
cases of nominative absolute, or independent. 

Rem. 1. — In the ast two cases, though the noun is absolute, the group 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of words to which it belongs, including the participle or infinitive, ha« 
some connection with the rest of the sentence. 

Rem. 2. — In case of the nominative absolute, that is, the nominative 
preceding a participle, sometimes the noun or pronoun is understood, and 
sometimes the participle ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing 
as cold ; " that is, we, or one, speaking properly. " This done, and all is 
safe ; " that is, being done. " This matter at an end, we will proceed ; 
being at an end 

Rem. 3. — Both of the last two cases result from abridging a dependent 
clause. The abridged construction may usually be restored to a complete 
proposition. 

Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule X. 

Whose gray top shall tremble, Aim descending. And we, what shall do? 

Tlais done, and we are sure of success. The prophets, do they live forever ? This 
matter finished, we will proceed. There all thy gifts and graces we display, thee, 
only thee, directing all our way. These matters arranged, the company separated. 
Fair pledges of a fruitful tree, why do ye fall so fast ? 

Rule XL Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect 
similar elements ; as, " Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were 
Jewish patriarchs." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed ; — 

Mrs. Unwin and Lady Hesketh were friends of Cowper. Clouds and 
darkness are round about him, righteousness and judgment are the habita- 
tion of his throne. They were united by ties of friendship and of kindred. 
I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the barbarians. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Ten Examples in which either of the different kinds of coordinate con- 
junctions, connect only elements ; ten in which they connect clauses. 

Caution I. In a series of coordinate terms, unless great 
emphasis is required, never use the conjunction, except between 
the last two. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

They confess the power, and wisdom, and love, and goodness of their 
Creator. John, and James, and Henry, and Charles will return this even- 
ing. His conduct was unkind, and unjust, and unmerciful. 

Caution II. Avoid dissimilar and disproportionate 
coordinate terms. 

Examples to be corrected : — 

He neither came nor was sent for. We pervert the noble faculty of 
speech when we use it to the defaming, or to disquiet our neighbors. We 
hope that we shall hear from him, and that he has returned. I always 
have, and I always shall be of this opinion. The work was executed with 
rapidity and promptly. It is a region distinguished by many charming 



SYNTAX RULE III. REMARKS. 18i 

varieties of rural scenery, and which may be termed the Arcadia of Scot 
land. 

Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two 01 
more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 

(1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be 
in the plural number. 

(2.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must 
be of the same number as that which stands next to it. 

(3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take 
the number of that one. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Charles and his sister were absent, but they were sent for." " Charles 
or his sister was absent." ll Charles or his sisters were absent." " Charles, 
and not his sister, teas absent." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

Where was it when winds and clouds were its only visitors, and where 
the sun and blue heaven by day, and the moon and stars by night, alone 
looked down and beheld it, the same as they behold it now ? One dav the 
poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from the market-place. Neith- 
er his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever withheld from the cause 
in which he had engaged. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved 
Whether one person or more were concerned in the business does not appear. 

Construct, analyze, and parse -— 

Four Examples in which a plural verb must agree with two singula' 1 
nominatives, four in which a pronoun in the singular shall relate to twQ. 
or more singular nouns. 

Rem. 1. — In the following cases, nouns in the singular seem to be takers, 
conjointly, and yet trie verb and pronoun should be singular : — 

(l.J When the coordinate nouns denGte the same person in different ca- 
pacifies ; as, " This great statesman and orator died lamented by all hi* 
friends." 

(2.) When the coordinate nouns are considered separately, by means of. 
such limiting words as each, every, or no ; as, " Each day and each hour 
brings its own duties and trials." " Every apple and every pear was taken 
from its place." " No book and no slate should be left out of its place.'* 

(3 ) When the coordinate nouns are distinguished with emphasis by 
means of not, only, too, as well as, or when there is an emphatic enumcra-r 
turn of individuals ; as, " George, and not James, is at his task." 
" Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." " The man, 
and his servant too, icas rewarded." " The father, as well as his son, was 
in fault." " Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." 

(4.) V Ordinate nouns are regarded by the mind as represent- 

ing one thing ; as, " Bread and milk is excellent food for children." *' The 
is in its place." 

Rem. 2. — The Rule and Rem. 1 have reference only to the number of 

16 



182 ENGLISH GrBAMBIAR. 

the verb and pronoun. It often happens that the coordinate words a*e of 
different persons. When the coordinate parts are of different persons, the 
verb or pronoun agrees with the first rather than the second, and with the 
second rather than the third ; as, " Thou and thy sons with thee -^ that is, 
ye) shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood." " John, thou and I (that 
is, we) are attached' to our country." 

Rem 3. — When the coordinate parts are each singular, and of different 
genders, several cases may arise : — 

(1.) Ihe verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun may relate 
to but one; as, "James and his sister were destroying her bonnet." 
" James and his sister were destroying his cap." 

(2.) Tne pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the verb 
relates to them taken separately ; as, " James or his sister has destroyed 
their dictionary," the dictionary being theirs by a joint ownership. 

(3.) When the pronoun has a common reference to both coordinate 
nouns taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the pro- 
noun, since the latter is plural, and consequently has, in English, the 
same form for all genders. 

(4.) When the pronoun refers to two or more coordinate nouns taken 
separately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to each, and 
there is an inherent difficulty in constructing the expression properly ; as, 
" John or Ellen has lost his or her pencil." To use his alone or her alone 
would reveal the ownership, which is supposed to be unknown. Hence it does 
not avail to say that the masculine is preferred to the feminine, and the 
feminine to the neuter ; for either would-become explicit, as in case (1.) To 
avoid this difficulty, it is best to recast the sentence, or so construct it as 
to escape such a dilemma. Yet, contrary to the general rule, frequent 
instances occur in which the pronoun, in such cases, is put in the plural, 
and thus the gender is concealed ; as, ' * Then shalt thou bring forth that 
man or that woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones, till 
they shall die." 

Rem. 4. — When each of the coordinate parts is denoted by the same 
word, and that a singular noun referring to different objects, and each, ex- 
cept the last, is understood — being represented by some modifying word, 
the agreement of the verb or pronoun follows the general rule ; as, " A 
"Webster's, a Worcester's, and a Richardson's dictionary were consulted ; " 
that is, three dictionaries. " A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poof 
man vjere assembled in one room." 

Examples to be 'parsed and corrected by Remarks under Rid" XII. 

This philosopher and poet was banished from his country. Every limb and every 

appears with their respective grace. Ambition, and not the safety of the state. 

were concerned. Bread and cheese is good for a luncheon. Then I, and you, ami 
all of us fell down, whilst bloody treason flourished over us John and Mary are 
taking care of her garden. Charles and Ellen are learning their lessons. Neither ha 
dor I am capable of it. Wayland's and Upham's Moral Philosophy was consulted. 

defined, educated, and — people present. Has not sloth, or pride, or ill 

Sniper, or sinful passion misled you from the path of sound and wise conduct? 

Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation 
©f its object to the word on which the latter depends ; as 
14 George went into the garden" " A life of virtue is a life 
of happiness." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

I cail to you with all my voice. From end to end, from cliff to lake, 'twa§ 



fe VN T AX RULE XI V. 163 

free. Her tears were now flowing without control. She is like some ten- 
der tree, the pride and beauty of the grove — graceful in its form, bright 
in its foliage, but with the worm preying at its heart. 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples in which the preposition and object shall limit a noun ; 
five in which the phrase shall limit a verb, and Jive in which it shall 
limit an adjective or adverb. 

Rem. 1. — The noun or pronoun following the preposition is always de- 
pendent on some term, usually a. preceding one, and the preposition is used to 
show that dependence. Properly speaking, the objective is not the object of 
the preposition, but of the preceding term. In the case of the transitive verb, 
there are two terms, the verb itself and the objective, and the relation be- 
tween them is closer, if possible, than between those in which the preposi- 
tion is used; the objective is not called the object of that relation, hut 
rather of the antecedent term, the verb. Yet custom makes the noun the 
object of the preposition. 

Rem. 2. — Sometimes the antecedent term is omitted, and sometimes 
the subsequent ; as, " In a word, he is ruined " = To express all in a word, 
&c. He looked around [him.] When the object is understood, the prep- 
osition is usually parsed as an adverb. For, used before an infinitive and 
its objective subject, when the group is taken as the subject of a proposi- 
tion, has no antecedent term ; as, " For him to lie is base." The to of 
the infinitive, when both together constitute the subject, represents no re- 
lation to an antecedent term ; as, " To lie is base." 

Rem. 3. — Betioeen and betwixt refer to two objects ; among <mdam07igst 
to more than two ; as, " He walked between the trees," (two trees.) " He 
walked among the trees," (many trees.) 

Rem. 4. — Care should be observed to employ the proper preposition to 
show the relation intended. The proper use of the prepositions is best 
learned from a careful observation of the custom of good writers. 

Exercises to be pars r d or corrected by the Remarks under Ride XIII. 

He was well known to all the country round. In vain he tried every remedy. 
For him to take such a course was not. unexpected. Thou pendulum betwixt a 
smile and tear. I am disappointed of the work. The story is founded in facts. I 
left nay books to home. I entertain no prejudice to him. That was agreeable witii 
his principles. They resided at Italy. There is eternal war between me and thee 

Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
preposition must be in the objective case ; as, " The ruins 
of the Parthenon stand upon the Acropolis in the city of 
Athens." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

A "imilar improvement may be made of the memory of our good deeds 
What ground of hope is there so sure to his spirit, next to the mercy of 
his God, and the intercession of Christ, his Savior ? It was not long be 
fore he returned with his man, whom he introduced, to me as a person of 
exceeding honesty ; and we went into the yard all together. 

Co?istruct, analyze, and parse — 

(1 ) Examples in which of, or any other preposition with a noun, shall 
describe another noun. 
(2.) Examples in which in, at, daring, since, abends after, before 



1'84 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 

heiiceen* by, ere, from, till, to, and toward, with a noun, shall denote the 
time of an action, or answer the question When? Hoic long? ov How 
often f 

(3.) Examples in which aboard, about, above, across, against, alone/, 
amidst, among, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, 
between, beyond, by, down, from, in, into, on, end of over, roimd, through, 
throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, up, upon, with a noun, shall 
denote the place of an action, or answer the question Where 1 

(4.) Examples in which from, for, by, out of, with a noun, shall denote 
the cause, source, or origin of an act, answering the question Why f On 
what account f or From what source f 

(5.) Examples in which with, without, in, on, by, within, with a noruij 
shall show the manner of an action, or answer the question How t 

Rem. I. — The preposition is omitted, or rather seldom, if ever, used, 
before nouns denoting time, measure, distance, value, or after the words 
like, near, nigh, worth ; as, "The wall is six feet high." "We walked 
twenty miles that day." " He helped a worthy man, and is not a penny 
poorer." "He is like [to] his father" "They live near [to] the city* 
"We came nigh [to] the gate." "The book is worth a dollar." The 
word worth is by some called a preposition ; but it can be predicated of a 
noun, like an adjective, and it can be qualified by an adverb ; as, " The 
matter is well worth your attention." True, it is not easy to supply a prep- 
osition after it, nor is it after high or revolves in the following examples : 
" The house is forty feet high." " The wheel revolves ninety times in a 
minute." 

Rem. 2. — Prepositions are sometimes followed by adjectives or adverbs. 
an object in some cases being understood ; as, " In vain " = In a vain 
manner, on high, in secret, at first, at once, from thence, from above, till now, 
forever, till lately, &c. 

Rem. 3. — Than before whom seems to perform the office of a preposi- 
tion ; as, " Than whom none higher sat." This construction is rare in 
modern usage, and should be avoided as anomalous. 

Eserci&es to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule XIV. 

We walked a great distance this morning. The child is like his mother. Pray to 
thy Father, which is in secret- They could not be convinced at first. That has 
never occurred until recently. It was worth the money. Near yonder copse, the 
village preacher's modest maiision rose. I was resolved, at least, to know my let 
ters. He came from afar. He lived in the country, near the city. 

Rule XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis- 
similar elements ; as, " He that hath pity on the poor lend- 
eth to the Lord," 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

We have brought no tiling into this world ; therefore we shall take nothing 
cut. While there is life, there is hope. However friendly he mieht ap- 
pear, his heart was full of anger. Herod wished to know where the stai 
had appeared. Whether the moon has an atmosphere has not been ascer- 
tained. He that plants trees loves others beside himself. What comes 
from the heart goes to the heart. Time will bring to light whatever is 
hidden. The more we serve God, the better we serve ourselves. As far as 
the eye could see, all was ruin and desolation. Work as long as you can, 
The more one has. the more he requires. Revenge always costs more than 
it is worth. That you may be loved, be deserving of love. If you would 
thrive, you must rise at five. 



SYNTAX ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 1<S5 

Construct, analyze, and parse — 

Five Examples in which icho, which, and that shall join an adjective 
clause to the subject ; five in which they shall join the clause to the object 
of a verb or preposition ; five in which the}' shall join the clause to the 
predicate nominative. 

Five Examples in which icho, or whoever, shall connect an adjective 
clause to some indefinite subject or object (he or any one) understood. 

Five Examples in which what, which, whatever, whichever, whatsoever, 
whichsoever, shall first limit, as an adjective, a definite noun expressed, anJ 
then connect to it an adjective clause; five in which they shall limit cr 
represent an indefinite noun (thing) understood. 

Ten Examples in which that, whether, when, why, where, how, who, 
which, what, introduce substantive clauses used as the subject ; (see 
Rem. 1 ;) ten in which they are used as an object of a transitive verb. 

Tex Examples in which xohere, whither, whence, wherever, whitherso- 
ever, as far as, as long as, farther than, shall connect an adverbial clause 
of place to a verb or adjective. 

Fifteen Examples in which when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere, 
till, until, since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant 
shall connect adverbial clauses denoting time to a verb or adjective. 

Examples for each of the following causal connectives : because, for, 
as, whereas, since ; (conditional,) if , though, except, provided that; (pur- 
pose,) that, that not, lest; (adversative,) though, although, notwitJistand- 
mg, however, while, and as, (with an adjective — " Hard as it was." ) 

Examples for each of the following, denoting manner : (correspondence,) 
as, just — as, so — as ;. (consequence, ) so — that, such — that ; (comparison 
of equality,) as — as ; (comparison of inequality,) than, more — than, 
less — than; (proportionate equality,) the — the, the more — the more, or 
the less. 

Rem. 1. — Thai, whether, or the various interrogatives when, where, 
&c, when used to introduce a substantive clause employed as the subject 
of a proposition, do not connect the clause to an antecedent term, since 
the subject can be subordinate to no other part of the proposition. These 
connectives thus used serve to convert a principal proposition into a sub- 
ordinate substantive proposition which, like any other noun, may be used 
as the subject. 

Rem. 2. — In many cases the subordinate connective has a correspond- 
ing word in the principal clause called the correlative ; as, " Then — when, 
there — where, if — then, though — yet, so — that, so — as, as — as, the, this, 
that, these, those — who, that, or which. 

Rem. 3. — The subordinate connective always unites the clause which it 
introduces to the word which the clause limits; as, "I perceive that 
you need assistance" 

Rem. 4. — Subordinate connectives are a kind of preposition placed be- 
fore a sentence which is to be converted into a noun, adjective, or adverb. 
Hence their position is almost invariably at the head of the clause. 



ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

A proposition is said to be abridged, when its predicate is 
changed to an infinitive or to a participle, the former partak- 
16* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

mg of the i ature of a noun, the latter parte king of the nature 
of an adjective ; as, " The light shines." " The light to shine" 
or " for the light to shine." u The light shining" or " having 
ehined." 

A complex sentence may be reduced to a simple, or a contact- 
ed complex sentence, by abridging its subordinate clause ; as, 
1 A man who perseveres will prosper " — A persevering man 
will prosper. " When we entered the city, we found all in 
commotion " ~ On entering the city, we found all in com- 
motion. " I knew he was an honest man " — I knew him 
to be an honest man. 

Rem. — The connective of the subordinate clause is dropped; as, "I 
thought that he was alone " — I thought him alone. But in such ex- 
amples as, " I know not what to do; whom to send — which to leave — 
where to go — when to stop — how to begin, the connective is not dropped, 
since it contains something material to the sense, not previously expressed. 
See page 104, Rem. 2. 

The infinitive is commonly employed in abridging a sub- 
stantive clause, and the participle in abridging the adjective 
or aciverbial clause. 

When the predicate consists of the copula and attribute, 
the infinitive or participle of the copula indicates the abridg- 
ment ; and the attribute remains unchanged, unless some- 
thing in the dependence of the abridged expression causes a 
change. 

EXERCISE. 

Abridge the dependent clauses in the following complex sentences : — 
Vapors rise, because they are light. If wishes were horses, beggars 
would ride. If we subdue not our passions, they will subdue us. That 
fine feathers make fine birds, we can see every day. Therein consists our 
true merit, that we fulfil our duties. Our own conscience will tell us 
whether our actions are light. Those who play with edge tools must ex- 
pect to be cut. He should have silver on his tongue whose purse is 
empty. When we shall die is kindly concealed from us. The sluggard 
knows not how sweet is repose after labor. Whom we love we also esteem. 
Superstitious persons imagine that there are ghosts. Never expect others 
will always do what they promise. 



SYNTAX KULE XVI. 18? 



THE SUBJECT IN THE ABRIDGED EXPRESSION. 

I. The subject of the dependent proposition is retained 
in the abridged expression, when it has not been expressed 
in the principal clause, — 

(1.) In the nominative absolute, (see Rule X.;) as, " When the party 
arrived, the dinner was prepared " = The party having arrived, the dinner 
was prepared. 

(2.) In the possessive limiting the abridged predicate used as a noun; 
as, "I was not aware that Dacicl had come"='I was not aware of Da- 
vul'S having come. 

(3.) In the objectice, when the abridged expression follows a transitive 
verb, or a preposition, (see Rule VIII. , Rem. 11;) as, " I knew that he 
was present " = I knew him to be present. " It was improper that he 
should go " = It was improper for him to go. 

II. The subject may be dropped when its equivalent is 
expressed in the principal clause ; as, " A prince who was 
renowned for his courage succeeded to the command " = A 
prince renowned for his courage, &c. j" I wish that I 
might go " — I wish to go, 



THE PREDICATE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 

The predicate noun or pronoun is always retained, ap- 
pearing, — 

(1.) In the nominative case, (a.) when the subject remains in the nom- 
inative ; as, " Since he was her teacher, she must learn " = He being her 
teacher, she must learn ; (b.) when (the subject being dropped) it is 
placed in apposition (with or without the participle of the copula) with a 
noun in the nominative ; as, " Paul, who was an apostle " = Paul [being] an 
apostle, (c.) When the subject is so changed as to have no control over 
its case ; as, I am sure that this man is a foreigner " = I am sure of this 
man's being a foreigner. " I am certain that it is he " = I am certain of 
its being he. 

(2.) In the objective case, (a.) when the subject is changed to the objec- 
tive; as, "I believe that it is he "— I believe it to be him. (/;.) Whex 
(the subject being dropped) it is put in apposition with an objective . as 
■* We found a fossil which is called the trilobite " = We found a 
called the trilohite. 



THE INFINITIVE. 

1\[jle XVI. The infinitive has the construction of the 
noun, with the signification and limitations of the verb, and, 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when dependent, is governed by the word which it limits ; 
as, " To err is human." " They desire to travel in a 
foreign country" " He wishes to obtain a treatise on the 
deposition of dew" 

Note. — It will be seen that the first infinitive, to err, is a noun in the nominative 
case, and the remaining two, to travel and to obtain, are used as nouns in the objec- 
tive case, both being limited as if they were finite verbs. 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

Full of admiration, I hardly know how to express my devotion. We 
ought to learn as long as we live. Let any man resolve to do right now, 
leaving then to do it as it can ; and if he were to live to the age of Me- 
thuselah, he would never do wrong. We did think it writ down in our duty 
to let you know of it. And what wealth would not many a sinner give to 
purchase that which the wealth of both the Indies is too poor to buy ? 
"We stretched out a willing hand to heal, to help, to guide, to save. I might 
compare these faculties to the valuable friends, who are always found ready 
to minister to our amusement, and participate in our gayety, and equally 
ready to counsel our sober hours, and assist our emergencies with effectu- 
al help. 

The infinitive may be used with or without a subject ; as, " We wish yon 
to stay." " We wish to stay." 

I. The infinitive may have a subject in the objective ; as, 
" They ordered him to leave." 

(1.) The infinitive of the copula may also have a. predicate objective; as, 
" I knew him to be a preacher." 

(2.) The infinitive with its subject may be the subject of a proposition ; 
the phrase must then be introduced by for ; as, "For you to deceive is 
criminal." " For him to be a scholar is impossible." 

(3.) The infinitive and its subject may be made the object of a transitive 
verb, or of the preposition for ; as, " He ordered the horse to he harnessed." 
" They considered him [to be] a traitor." " They appointed him [to be] 
chairman." See Rule VIII., Rem. 10 and 11. " They ordered some 
water for the boy to drink." 

(4.) When the infinitive, (with or without its objective subject,) fol- 
lows bid, dare, let, need, ?nake, see, hear, and feel, in the active voice, 
the " to " is omitted ; as, " I saw him do it." " They let him go." " We 
heard them sing." 

II. The infinitive usually occurs without its subject ; as 
1 They wish to walk."' 

(1.) The infinitive alone may be used as the subject of a proposition b} 
Mule I. ; as, " To retaliate is censurable." 

(2.) The infinitive alone may be used as the attribute of a proposition 
by Rule II. ; as, " To obey is to enjoy." 

Note. — When the infinitive is thus used, it denotes, (1.) An equivalent term ; as 
< r To pray is to supplicate." (2.) What is possible or obligatory ; as, " The passage i 
fcr. be found." " Our duty is to be done." (3.) What is settled oi determined upon 
£■• c The work is to commence to-morrow " 



SYNTAX RULE XVII. 180 

,S.) The infin.tive, without its subject, may he the object of a transitive 
tosition, or it may be used to complete the meaning of some 
intransitive verbs ; as, " He wishes to remain." " They are about to yo" 
* She seems to sleep." 

(4.) The infinitive may be used as an adjective element oxnounin apposi- 
tion, limiting another noun; as, "Time to come." " A desire to yo." u 
" A hope to recover" " A wish to stay." 

(5.) The infinitive may be used adverbially, — 

(1.) To denote purpose, or motive; as, " What went ye out to see f " 

Note. — In This use the infinitive is sometimes said to be absolute ; as, " To con- 
fess the truth, I was in fault." 

(2.) To denote a result, after too, than, so — as ; as, " He is too proud 
to beg." " He is wiser than to attempt such an enterprise." " Be so good 
as to hear me." 

Rem. 1. — The preposition for should never be used before the infinitive 
employed to express motive or purpose ; also the sign to should not be used 
at the close of a sentence ; as, " He went to see," not for to see. "He 
spoke, or intended to speak," not intended to. 

Rem. 2. — The infinitive is often understood; as, "They considered 
him [to be] upright," 



EXERCISE ON THE INFINITIVE. 

I have brought a book for you to read. Johnson declared wit to consist 
in finding out resemblances. These passages prove that materialists wall 
sometimes find Hume to be a very dangerous ally. For him to assert and 
deny the same sentiment on different pages, is proof of the instability of 
his opinions. It was well for him to die at his post, with his armor on. 
I heard him repeat whole pages of poetry. Few things are more destruc- 
tive to the best interests of society than the prevalent but mistaken no- 
tion that it requires a vast deal of talent to be a successful knave. It is a 
disgrace to be the author of such a report. To take away the benevolent 
affections from the moral world would be like extinguishing the sun from 
the natural. I love to roam over the green fields. He seems to think the 
rule inapplicable to his case. They appear to rest upon the solid earth. 
A desire to see his face once more induced us to attempt the journey. The 
work is to be commenced to-morrow. To be good is to be happy. They 
remained to see what was to be done. He was too feeble to write a letter* 
Will you be so good as to pass me that book ? 

Rule XVIL Participles have the construction of adjec- 
tives and nouns, and are limited like verbs ; as, " He, stoop- 
ing down, and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying ; yet 
went he not in." " A habit of sincerity in acknolwedging 
faults is a guard against committing them." 

Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — 

He employs part of his time in teaching hir brother arithmetic. There 
is no doubt of his being a great statesman. The young maiden was seen 
standing on the shore, exposed to the merciless winds, and extending her 
hands towards heaven. Whom not having seen we love ; in whom 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

oelieving we rejoice. In avoiding one error, do not fall into another. By 
consulting the best authors, he became learned. Draw not thy bow before 
naving fixed thy arrow. A drowning man will catch at a straw. Stretch- 
ing from horizon to horizon, losing itself like a limitless wall in the clouds 
above, it came pouriag its green and massive waters onward, while the 
continual and rapid crash of falling forests, and crushed cities, and uptorn 
mountains, thus prostrated, one after another, under its awful power, and 
the successive shrieks that pierced the heavens, rising even above the 
roar of the on-rushing ocean, as city after city, kingdom after kingdom, 
disappeared, produced terror and horror inconceivable, indescribable. 

I. The participle used as an adjective assumes of its 
subject ichat the verb asserts ; as, " Hyacinths blooming" 
" Hyacinths bloom." 

(10 The participle may be used wholly as an adjective ; it is then called 
a participial adjective, and is placed before the noun ; as, " The rising sun." 
" The roaring billows." 

(2.) The participle may be used like an adjective, having the same signi- 
fication and limitations as the verb ; the participle, with the words which 
limit it, is then called the participial construction ; as, " Encouraged by this 
magnificent invitation, the inhabitants of the globe considered labor as 
their only friend." 

(30 The participle of the copulative verbs may be followed by a predicate 
nominative, (1.) When the noun or pronoun to which it belongs is nomin- 
r. i 20 When the noun or pronoun to which it logically belongs is 

changed to the possessive; as, "He being an accomplished writer." "I 
have heard of his being an accomplished writer." 

(40 The participle of copulative verbs may be followed by a predicate ob- 
jective when the noun or pronoun to which it belongs is in the objective ; as, 
" We regarded him as being a good writer." " He intrusted his son to 
a gentleman named Edric." 

(o.) The participle, like the adjective, may be used with the copula to 
form the predicate ; but in this construction* it is regarded as a form of the 
verb ; as, "They were riding " " He was deceived." 

II. TJie participle may be used either wholly as a noun, 
or as a noun having the meaning and limitations of the 
verb ; as, " It is pleasant to walk at the rising of the sun." 1 
" We should avoid giving pain to others." 

(1.) The participle used wholly as a noun is preceded by an article or 
adjective, and followed by of; as, "The sighing of the poor." " The cry- 
ing of the needy." In this case the participle cannot be limited, like the 
Verb. 

(2.) The participle having the construction of the noun with the mean- 
ing and limitations of the verb may be the subject, ox predicate nominative, 
or'the object of a transitive verb 6r preposition ; as, " Loving our neigh- 
bor as ourselves is fulfilling the law." " Stealing is taking without lib- 
erty." " We should avoid breaking a promise." " On approaching the 
house, the sound of a bell was faintly heard." 

(30 In this construction the participle is nailed the par&^up 2 nm 
and. as such, may be limited by a noun or proa um in the posfcs&rvt * 



SYNTAX — PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS. L9l 

M What do you think of his writing a letter — his being a writer ? " For 
this last, see I. 3, above. 



EXEHCISE ON THE PARTICIPLE. 

A far more interesting personage in their mythology was the god of the 
air. It is doing injustice to the heroic war god of antiquity to identify 
him with this monster. We expect the dancing master to teach our chil- 
dren " manners," as well as the act of cutting awkward capers to music. 
Why is the experiment of an extended republic to be rejected ? Pie came 
near being devoured by a panther. These islanders are far from being 
cannibals. The case is well worth considering. They came upon him with- 
out his being apprised of their approach. The urchin's becoming so re- 
spectable a man surprised every one. The gentleman's reputation as a 
scholar was the cause of his being appointed professor of rhetoric. 

They narrowly escaped being taken prisoners. Being convinced of his 
guilt, we resolved to punish him. We descried a vessel stripped of its 
masts. Having declined the proposal, I determined on a course suited to 
my own taste. They have said, Come, and let us cut them off from being 
a nation. He had been there but a short time, before the old man alighted 
from his gig, with the apparent intention of becoming his guest. Such 
persons commence by being their own masters, and finish by being their 
own slaves. He had just been reading a book called the " Young Man's 
Guide.'' I cannot understand adding three columns at once. On our 
arriving at the pier, all was commotion. 



PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS. 

I. IN THE CLASSIFICATION, USES, AND PROPERTIES 
OF WORDS AND SENTENCES. 

A. The same Word as different Parts of Speech. 

What is (1.) An interrogative pronoun ; as, " What do you see ? " 

(2.) A compound relative ; as, " He received what he wanted " 

(3.) An interjection ; as, " What ! have you come ? " 

(4.) A limiting adjective; as, "He gave me what books I 

needed." 
(5.) An adverb; as, "The enemy having his country wasted, 

what {partly) by himself, and what {partly) by the sol 

diers, findeth succor in no place." 

That is (1.) A subordinate conjunction ; as, " I know that he is faith* 
ful." 

(2.) A relative pronoun ; as, " An idler is a watch that (which) 

wants both hands." 
(3.) A limiting adjective ; as, " That book is soiled." 

As is (1.) Part of a com pound preposition ; as, "As to that, said the 

pendulum.' 
C2). A. subordinate connective >, when it denotes, — • 



J 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(a.) Manner ; as, " Speak as you think.** 

{b.) Comparison of equality ; as, " He is as large as liia 

brother." 
(c.) Time ; as, " I arrived as (when) he was taking his 

leave." 
{d.) Cause or reason ; as, " As (since) a youth was their 

leader, what could they do ? " 
(e.) Correspondence; as, " As the door turneth on its 

hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed." 

Noik — Besides the above utses, it takes the place of the relative pronoun (thorgh 
never property a relative) after such, same, and many ; as, " Such as I have, give I 
unto thee." 

(3.) A mere index of apposition, or of a peculiar relation of 
some property to its object: as, " The moon as satellite 
attends." " They regarded him as innocent." 
But is (1.) A coordinate conjunction ; as, " He is not sick, but faint." 
(2.) A preposition ; as, " They gave him all but (except) one.** 
(3.) An adverb ; as, " We saw him but (only) twice." 
Much 5«» (1.) A noun ; as, " Where much is given, much is required." 
(2.) An adjective ; as, " Much ado is made." 
(3.) An adverb ; as, " I was much pleased with the visit." 
For is (1.) A subordinate connective ; as, " The battle ceased along the 
plain, for the bard had sung the song of peace." 
(2.) A preposition ; as, "The soldier fought for glory." 

Note. — The same is true of after, before, since, till, until, &c. 

When is (1.) An interrogative adverb ; as, " When did you arrive ? " 

(2.) A subordinate connective ; as, " When sinners entice thee, 
consent thou not." 

Note. — The same is true of all the interrogatives ; as, where, why, how, &c, fee 



EXERCISE. 

Parse the following words : — 

What ! have you but one book for me ? I knew that that was the tree 
that was girdled. As you have what you will need for the present, I shall 
give much of what remains to your sister as a reward. All but three of 
these rivers are navigable ; but you must recollect I shall tell you this but 
once ; for it is unpleasant to repeat. 



H. The same Part of Speech in Different Bela» 
tions and Uses. 

I . The noun may be used, — 
(a.) As a noun. 

(1.) In the nominative as subject ; as, " Kings reign.'* 
(2, N In the nominative as attribute ; as, " He is a pupil." 



♦SYNTAX — SAME TART OF SPEECH. 193 

(.3.) In the nominative in apposition; as, " George the king reigned." 
(4.) In the nominative independent ; as, " O, George, the kins." 
(5.) In the possessive always as a modifier ; as, " David's harp." 
(6.) In the objective as subject of an infinitive ; as, " I told John 

to go." 
(7.) In the objective as attribute after an infinitive ; as, " I took it 

to be John.'" 
(8.) In the objective after a transitive verb ; as, " He writes letters." 
(0.) In the objective after a preposition; as, " He sits upon a sofa." 
(10) In the objective in apposition; as, "They visited John the 

printer." 

[b.) As an adjective, or adject ively. 

(1.) Without a preposition; as, " A go Id pencil." " A safety lamp." 

Note. — Nouns thus used should be called adjective?. In many languages they 
nnaergo some change of termination, and in some* instances in our own; as, " A 
hi aim gate." But ne say, " A brass kettle." So, "A golden censer," but never 
' ^\ golden watch." See "Idiomatic Constructions." 

(2.) With a preposition ; as, " A man of wisdom " = A wise man. 
(c.) As an adverb, or adverbially. 

(1.) Without a preposition ; as, " He did it four times a day" 

Note. — In such constructions, it is customary, but scarcely necessary, to suppose 
9 preposition understood. 

(2.) With a preposition; as, " He labored with assiduity. 

2. The pronoun may be used, — 

(a.) The personal in all respects like the noun. 

(b.) The relative and interrogative the same, toith the excep- 
tion that they can never be used in apposition, and the relative sel- 
dom, if ever, as predicate nominative. 






The adjective may be used, — 

(a.) As an adjective. 

(1.) To limit or qualify a noun ; as, " Good men." 
(2.) To denote a predicated quality ; as, " He is wise." 

(5.) As a noun. 

(1.) Wholly as a noun, (a.) When it is taken abstractly ; as, " Good- 
ness," " Virtue; " (b.) When it receives the plural ending ; as, 
" The blacks are abused." 
(2.) To stand as a noun, when the latter represents some indefinite 
person or thing; as, "The wicked." "The good." "The 
true." 
\c.) As an adverb, or adverbially, when by enallage it qualifies a verb ; 
as, " They fall successive, and successive rise ;" or when in the 
predicate it expresses a quality which the subject acquires by 
means of an action ; as, " The bread was baked brovm ; " that is, 
the bread became brown by means of baking 

17 



194 



ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 



4L The verb may be used,— 

(a.) As a predicate, in the various forms, modes, terns t *. ,, um- 
bers, and pei*sons. 

(b.) As a noun. 

(1.) Wholly so, with, some substantive termination, wher taken 

abstractly; as, " Move," " Movement." "Act," " AcUon." 
(2.) Partially ^ so, when it has the meaning and limitations of the 

verb, .with the construction of the noun ; as, " To see the sun 

is pleasant." " Seeing the sun is pleasant." (See Rules XVI. 

and XVII.) 
(c.) As an adjective, when the action is assumed of the subject. 

(1.) It may be wholly an adjective; as, " A floating population." 
(2.) Partially so, when it has the construction of the adjective 

and the limitations of the verb ; as, " The flag floating in the 

breeze." (See Hule XVII.) 

Note. — The verbal noun can be put in all the relations of the noun, except the 
possessive case. 

5. The adverb is used, — 

(a.) To limit a verb, adjective, or other adverb; as, "Speak distinct- 
ly." " He was very dull." " He moves too slowly." 
(b.) Sometimes, though not properly, as an adjective ; as, " Thine often 
infirmities." 

©. Prepositions are used, — 

(a.) To show relations ; as, " The love of truth." 
(6.) As adverbs. " Will you walk inf " 

(c.) Barely as adjectives; as, " The above quotation." " The rain is 
o'er." 

T. Conjunctions are used simply as connectives. 

8. Interjections are used to express motions. 

Rem. — Any word, whatever be its classification, when used merely as 
a word, is a noun. The same may be said of a group of words 



C. The same Word, Element, or Sentence in its 
Different Properties.* 

A word may be considered, — 
(a.) As the representative of a sound. 

(1.) It may be classified as a monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable 
polysyllable. 

* The object of this division is to present, at a glance, the different methods which 
may be resorted to, in order to give interest and variety to drill exercises in language. 
The study of language becomes dull and dry when parsing alone is attended to. The 
teacher may resort to any or all of these methods. 



SYNTAX SAME ELEMENT. % 195 

(2.) It may be analyzed into its syllables. The accented syllable 
may be pointed out. As an exercise on accent, the syllables, 
in turn, may be accented by the pupil. 

(3.) Each syllable may be separated into its vowel and consonant 
elements, and each may be described. 

[b.) As (O its FORMATION. 

(1.) It may be simple, derivative, or compound. 

(2.) If derivative, or compound, it may be analyzed into its primi- 
tive part or parts, its prefixes and suffixes. The effect of each 
may be given, and all the alterations, or changes, which the parts 
undergo. 

' K C.) As tO its MEANING OT USE. 

(1.) What part of speech is it ? Why ? Is it ever used as any 
other part of speech ? Give an example. 

(2.) Parse it. Now, suppose it to be changed in any of its modifi- 
cations, as number, person, gender, case, mode, tense, voice, 
degree of comparison ; what other changes in the sentence 
must take place to correspond ? 
3.) Change its relation in the sentence, or construct another sen- 
tence in which it shall be either a different part of speech, or 
in a different relation. 

(d.) As to its relation in construction. 

(1.) Is it a principal or a subordinate term, or is it both ? 

(2.) Point out its principal term ; point out its subordinate term. 
Read it with each. 

(3.) Is its relation represented or unrep>resented? If represented, 
point out the relation-word, and describe it. Read it with its 
superior term, omitting the relation-word, thus : " Trees gar- 
den ; " then read it, inserting the words, " Trees of the garden." 

(e.) As to the number of functions it performs. 

(1.) Does it perform but one office, requiring but one rule of syn- 
tax, or does it perform two or more ? How many rules are 
applied in parsing a personal pronoun ? A relative pronoun ? 
The relative what, when placed before its antecedent ? 
(2.) Explain it in all its functions. 

\f.) As to its application. 

(1.) Is it correct in its application, or it is misapplied? 

(2.) Is it elegantly applied, or has it merely a plain or corimon ap- 
plication ? 

(3.) Is it used. figuratively? What is the figure ? 

(4.) Is the word modern or antique ? as, " Fetch ' = bring. 
" Wist " = know. " Let " = hinder. 

(5.) Is it low, vulgar, or provincial? If so, give the correct word. 

(6.) What, other word has nearly the same application ? Substi« 
tute it, and point out the difference. 

(7.) Can the expression be improved ? If so, improve it. 

An element may be considered, — 
(a.) As a whole. 

(1.) If it is a single wo^d, it may then be parsed; if a vhrasa 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clattSe, it may first be parsed as if it were one word, by calling 
it substantive, adjective, or adverbial, as the case may be, and 
by giving its construction as if it were a single part of speech. 

(2.) Its relation may be given, whether subordinate or principal; 
also its antecedent or subsequent term. 

(3.) It may be transformed by expanding or abridging it, and in it? 
transformed state it may be regarded, as a whole, equivalent to 
the element in its former state. 

(6.) As composed of parts. 

(1.) If it is a phrase, point out the connective and object. 

(2.) If it is a clause, point out the connective, and analyze the clause. 

(3.) If it is complex, point out and dispose of the basis, then the 

term depending upon this, then the next, and the next, in the 

order of dependence. 
(4.) If it is compound, point out its component parts, and dispose 

of them separately, giving first their relation (coordinate) to 

each other, and then their common relation (subordinate) to 

the term on which they depend. 
(5.) If it is transposed, restore it to its natural position. 
(6.) If elliptical, supply the ellipsis. 

(7.) If incorrectly constructed, point out the error, and correct it. 
(8.) If it is left blank, or given as an exercise to be constructed, 

construct it, in the relation, form, condition, or modification 

required. 

A sentence may be considered, — 
(a.) As a whole. 

(1.) Is it declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory f 
(2.) Is it simple, complex, or compound? 
(3.) Is it close or loose in its structure ? 

(4.) Transform it from declarative to interrogative, &c. ; from corn- 
pound to complex, &c. 

(b.) As composed of parts. 

(1.) Analyze it into its elements. 

(2.) Trace the relation of the most remote word up to the subject, 
or the relation of the subject down to the most remote term, 
pointing out all the connectives or relation-words. 

(3.) Reconstruct the sentence ; take some other noun or pronoun, 
standing in a remote relation, and make that the subject, or 
change it for the purpose of improving the arrangement, unity, 
or harmony of its parts. 

(4.) Construct a sentence so as to make it represent a scene or men- 
tal picture, relating to clouds, dew, vap)or, rain ; a ?neadow, a 
valley, a stream of water, a flower, & flock of birds, &c, &c, &c. 

Note. — By exercises varied as above, and in many other ways, such as the In- 
genuity of the teacher will suggest, the whole subject of language may be made in- 
tensely interesting to children. It will be well, at length, to analyze whole paragraphs 
into the sentences which compose them, pointing out the relation of each sentence 
Jo the general thought. 



S/NTAA' FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 197 

II. PECULIARITIES IN THE FORM, CONSTRUCTION, 
AND APPLICATION OF WORDS. 

These peculiarities are called figures. A figure is a ieviation from the 
ordinary /an;?, construction, and application of a word. Hence figures are 
divided into those of Etymology, Syntax, and Rhetoric. 



FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the ordinary 
form of a word. 

Figures of Etymology consist either in a defect, an excess, or a change, 
in some of the elements of a word. 

Aphceresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning 
of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, for against, began. 

Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the middle of a 
fvord ; as, o'er, e'er, lov'd, for over, ever, loved. 

Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a 
word ; as th', tho', for the, though. 

Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of 
a word ; as, adown, enchain, for down, chain. 

Epenthesis adds a letter or syllable to the middle of a 
word ; as, preventative, retractation, for preventive, retrac- 
tion. This figure seldom occurs in English. 

Par ago ge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; 
as, withouten, bounder, for without, bound. 

Synceresis contracts two syllables into one ; as, thou'rt, 
'tis, for thou art, it is. 

Dicer esis separates two vowels which otherwise might form 
a diphthong ; as, coordinate, zoology. 

Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a word 
between its parts ; as, to us ward, for toward us. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the figures in the following examples : — 
Around 'gan Marmion wildly stare. 

17* 



198 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave mm 
Did ye not hear it ? No : 'twas but the wind. 

Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffiis'd. 

O, whafs the matter ? what's the matter ? 
What is't that ails young Harry Gill ? 

A heart has throbb'd beneath that leathern breast, 
And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled. 

He led, I wot, the softest way to death, 

And taught xuithouten pain and strife to yield the breath. 

What figures woidd you employ to render the following lines \af 
monious : — 

It is the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 

For we have sworn, by our countries assaulters, 
By the virgins they have dragged from our altars 

And every tempest howling over his head 
Renders the savage wilderness more wild. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordinary ccn- 
struct ion of a word. 

Figures of Syntax consist in a defect, an excess, or a change in some of 
the elements of a sentence 

Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause, 
which is necessary to complete the construction ; as, " We 
were absent [during] one day." 

It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure as truly 
belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those which are 
expressed. They are omitted for rhetorical effect, that is, to render the 
sentence more agreeable and forcible. 

Ellipsis generally takes place, — 

1. In coordinate constructions, to avoid the repetition of 

some common part ; as, — 

" There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who] think so much 
about vice and [about] virtue, that they have no time to practise eithei 
the one or the other." 

2. In certain sui 'ordinate constructions, especially those 

which denote comparison, for the same reason ; as, — 

" Revenge is a stronger feeling than gratitude [is.] " " Our ininr's arc 
as different as our faces [are.] " 



SYNTAX — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 19S 

3. In certlin idiomatic constructions : — 

(1.) In elements of the first class — the subject of imperative sen- 
tences ; as, "Go [thou.] " "Awake [ye.]" The noun after adjectives 
or after the possessive case ; as, "The violent [persons] take it by force." 
" This book is mine," i. e., my book. 

(2.) In elements of the second class. The connective may be omitted. 
Examples. The to before the indirect object ;• as, " He gave [to] me a 
book." The to of the infinitive after bid, dare, let, make, hear, need, feel, see. 
To or unto after like, near ; as, like [to] his father, near [to] the house. 
During, over, for, in, or on, before nouns, denoting time, the measure of 
distance, magnitude, or excess; as, " They left [on] Monday." "They 
travelled [through] twenty miles." 

The object may be omitted; as, "The leaves were scattered around 
[us.] " In such cases, the preposition is usually called an adverb. 

(3.) In elements of the third class. The connective may be omitted 
in substantive clauses in the objective; as, " My heart whispers [that] God 
is nigh." In adjective clauses when the relative is in the objective; as, 
" The paper [which] we purchased is damaged." " The house [which] we 
went to stands on a hill." 

The subject and copula in expressions like " If [it is] possible, if neces- 
sary, if convenient, when agreeable, while absent," &c. 

The whole clause between as and if, as and though ; as, " He seemed as 
[he would seem] if [he were] deranged." 

4. In exclamatory sentences, in responsives, in inscrip- 
tions, and titles ; as, " [It is] strange ! " " Whom did you 
see ? [I saw] George." " [This is] the New Testament." 

Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " I know 
tliee who thou art" 

Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis, and may be said, in general, to take 
place where ellipsis should, but does not, take place. 

Pleonasm takes place, — 

(I.) When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different words ; 
as, "Verily, verily, I say unto you." " All ye inhabitants of the world, 
and dwellers on the earth" 

(2.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence, and then immediately 
represented in the same relation by a pronoun ; as, " Now Harry he had 
long suspected." 

(3.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same relation 
for the purpose of modifying it ; as, " That yreat God whom you see me 
daily worship ; — * — * — that God who created the heavens and the earth ; 

* — * — this God who has done all these great things — * — * — this 

great God, the Creator of worlds, of angels, and men, is your Father and 
Friend." 

Enallage is a change of one part of speech for another, 
or some modification of a word for another ; as, " They fall 
successive [ly] and successive [ly] rise." So when a single 



200 



ENGLISH GRAM MAR. 



individual says, " We have done so and so," he uses the 
plural number for the singular. 

Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, " While its 
song rolls the woods along?'' 



EXERCISE. 

Supply the words omitted by ellipsis in the following : — 

Cassius. I am a soldier, I, 

Older in practice, abler than yourself 
To make conditions. 
Brutus. Go to ! you're not, Cassius. 
Cos. I am. 

Bru. I say you are not. ♦ 

Write or repeat the following, leaving out all words ivhich may be omit* 
fed: — 

If it is possible, I will come. What would be the consequence though 
we tarry? 

Tell what figures occur in the folloioing examples : — 

Anxiously did we watch every movement. Dark burned the candle. 
For Renard close attended at his heels. Sometimes with early morn, he 
mounted gay. Seven circling planets we behold. He speaks as if he were 
sick. Say, burst they borrowed from her father's wounds these drops? 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary 
application of a word ; it is commonly called a trope. 

Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate name of 
another object, on account of a resemblance between them ; 
as, " Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." 

Simile is a formal comparison, introduced by like, as, or 
so ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of 
water." 

An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a Rind of 
parable or fable. For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress. 
See also the eightieth Psalm. 

Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of 
the qualities of living beings ; as, " The sky saddens with 
the gathered storm." 



SYNTAX — FiG\ RES OF RHETORIC. 201 

Metonymy is a change of name ; as, " You will address 
the chair ; " i. e., the president. 

Vision represents imaginary objects as real and present 

to the senses ; as, — 

" See lofty Lebanon his head advance ; 
See nodding forests on the mountains dance." 

Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the whole 
for a part, as a sail for a ship, a roof for a house, the 
head for the person. 

Irony is the use of a word for its opposite ; as, " He was 
as virtuous as Nero ; " i. e., as vile as Nero. 

Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite objects in 
contrast ; as, " Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, 
great" 

Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object beyond the 
truth ; as, " Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because 
they keep not thy law." 

Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of 
the mind ; as, " O the depth of the riches both of the wis- 
dom and the knowledge of God ! " 

Interrogation is used to express a strong affirmation under 
the form of a question ; as, " Hath he said it, and will he 
not do it ? " 

Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address 
some other person or thing ; as, " Death is swallowed up in 
victory. O Death, where is thy sting ? O Grave, where is 
thy victory ? " 

Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising 
in importance above the preceding. 

EXAMPLE. 

** What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their pleasure 
it is lawful for them to do ; if whatever it is lawful for them to do, they 
are able to do ; if what they are able to do, they dare to do ; if what they 
dure to do, they really execute ; and if what they execute is no way offen- 
sive to you ? " 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the figures in the following : — 

" Yet at thy call the hardy tar pursued, 
Pale, but intrepid; sad, but unsubdued" 

He has at last assumed the sceptre. The power of appointment is vested 
in the crown. The garrison was put to the sword. In the sweat of thy 
face shalt thou eat thy bread. The sea saw it and fled. Joseph is a fruit- 
ful bough. Devotion is a delicate and tender plant. A virtuous man, 
slandered by evil tongues, is like a diamond obscured by smoke. I will be 
to her a wall of fire. What ailed thee, O thou sea, that thou fieddest f 
They are swifter than eagles, they are stronger than lions. Read 1 Kings, 
xviii. 27, and explain the figure. Canst thou by searching find out God ? 
Canst thou find out the Almighty- unto perfection ? What a piece of 
work is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! in action, 
how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a God, 



ni. IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Note. — The following examples are intended to draw the attention of the teach- 
er to the various idiomatic peculiarities in the constructions which follow certain 
words or forms of words, and not to be a complete system which exhausts the subject. 

1. The perfect tenses, and generally the tenses of the 
progressive form, are followed by some phrase or clause 
used to specify the time to which they relate ; as, " I had 
finished my letter before you came." 

2. The comparative degree is followed, — 

(1.) By an adverbial clause introduced by than, when both the compared 
objects are distinctly named ; as, " The ash is taller than the oak [is.] s '* 

(2.) By a phrase (preposition of) when one of the compared objects is 
distinctly named, and the other is involved in a general term which in- 
cludes both ; as, " The ash is the taller of the two trees." 

3. The superlative degree is followed by a phrase, (prep. 
of,) and shows a comparison between a single object dis- 
tinctly named, and all other objects with which it is com- 
pared ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks" 

4. Many adjectives, as able, unable, — necessary, unneces- 
sary, — desirable, undesirable, — agreeable, disagreeable^ 
&c, are followed by an infinitive, or a preposition and its 
object, when in the positive degree. When in the compara- 
tive or superlative, they are also followed by the construc- 
tion required by the above rules, (3 and 4, above ;) as, 
" George was unwilling to write" " George was more un 
willing to write than his sister" 

5. The verb " to be," when used to predicate existence 



SYNTAX IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 203 

(and not as a copula,) is generally preceded by the expletive 
1 there, 11 and followed by its subject ; as, " There was light." 
When such a proposition is abridged, the expletive remains 
is, " God said, Let there be light." " There being no provis 
/ons, we were compelled to leave." " I am not sure of ther 
being a supply." 

6. The verbs tell, teach, say, loish, declare, order, and, in 
general, those which denote some state or act of the mind, 
Dr some declaration or statement, are generally followed, — 

(1.) By a substantive clause ; as, " I say, that he was angry." 
(2.) By a personal object and an infinitive, which together are equivalent 
to a substantive clause abridged ; as, " I told him to stop" 

7. It is always placed at the beginning of a sentence 
whose subject is an infinitive, (with or without its objective 
subject,) or a substantive clause, when the infinitive or clause 
is placed after the predicate ; as, " For you to leave me would 
be unkind " — It would be unkind for you to leave me, 
" That this measure will prevail is quite certain " = It is 
quite certain that this measure will prevail. 

This idiom usually prevails when an objective clause be 
comes the subject by changing the preceding verb into the 
passive voice ; as, " I believe that the resources of this coun- 
try will go on increasing from year to year " = It is be- 
lieved that the resources, &c. 

Another idiom in which u it " introduces a sentence occurs 
when we wish to bring forward a person or thing with em- 
phasis. Instead of saying, " Arnold betrayed his country," 
we say, " It was Arnold that betrayed his country." 

8. Had before rather, as lief, and as well, seems to be an 
auxiliary with the present tense, instead of the past participle 
of the verb ; as, " I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon." 
" I had as lief go as stay." " You had as well stop." Pres- 
ent usage substitutes would. Still these expressions are often 
found, and are to be disposed of. It seems most probable 
that what we call the present tense of the verb was original- 
ly an infinitive governed by had ; as, M I had to go„ v " 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

had to write ; " but when the comparative rather, or as lief, 
was inserted, the " to " was dropped ; as, " I had rather go" 
* c I had as lief write" " You had as well go" Would, in 
the expressions, " TVould to God," " Would God it were 
fo," is a principal verb, equivalent to desire, or wish. It is 
past in form, but present in meaning. 

9. The forms resulting from abridging dependent clauses 
afford many idiomatic difficulties. Most of these are ex- 
plained under " Abridged Propositions." The following are 
some of these forms : — 

(1.) A predicate noun follows the infinitive, or participle of the copula 
without a subject, or with the subject changed to the possessive ; as, " To 
be a good writer requires much practice." Here writer must be considered 
in the nominative, unless we supply the words, "for one" before it: if 
such were the construction, it would be in the objective. " I have no fear 
of his being an idler." Here nothing can be supplied to control the case 
of idler. It was nominative before the clause was abridged, and nothing 
has changed its case. 

(2.) " Give me something to fasten the door with." Here it is not ap- 
parent how with should be disposed of. This idiom results from abridging 
the following proposition in Italics : " Give me something with which 1 
may fasten the door " = Give me something with which to fasten the 
door = Give me something to fasten the door with [which]. - 

(3.) Contrary to the general rule, the connective of the dependent clause 
is retained in such expressions ; as, I know not what to do, where to go, 
when to stop, how to wait, with what to xorite, with ivhich to remain; and 
in the above example, which^ the subsequent term of the relation expressed 
by with f mus' be supplied. 

10. Some difficulty arises from the facility with which, in 
English, a noun, without change of form, can be used as an 
adjective ; as, " An iron bar." " A variety store." Re- 
specting such cases, it should be observed, — 

(1.) That though the noun is used like an adjective, it is qualified (not 
by an adverb, as is the case with a real adjective, but) by an adjective ; as, 
" A high pressure engine" not " A high engine ; " nor " A highly pressure 
engine." 

(2.) That this idiom may lead to ambiguous expressions, which can be 
avoided only by making a compound word of the two which should b°. 
united ; as, " A white oak pail." " A white mountain moose." Is it " a 
white oak-pail," or " a white-oak pail"? "A white mountain-moose/* 
or " A white-mountain moose " ? It often happens that the denning noun 
is joined to the other by a hyphen, thus forming a compound noun ; as, 
" .Sam-door." " .BncA-walk." 

(3.) That sometimes a noun has an adjective termination, and then both 
forms may be used as adjectives, yet with very different effects ; as, " A 
wooden house ; " ■" A wood house." "A golden harvest;" "A gold 
harvest " 



SYNTAX THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 205 

(4.) That the noun thus used must be in the singular number ; as, u A 
horse power," not " A horses power/' " A foot pole," not M A feet pole" 

(5.) That this last rule is observed even though a numeral adjective, 
which would otherwise require the following word to be plural, is added ; 
as, " A forty horse power," not " A forty horses power." 

(6.) That it is observed even in words which, otherwise used, have no 
singular form ; as, " ito/rcZ-complamt/'not " Bowels-complaint." " Spe* x ." 
tocfe-maker," not " Spectacles -maker." m 

11. A very forcible idiom arises from the formation of an 
adjective out jf a participle combined with some other word ; 
as, uninteresting, unimpeached, labor -saving, heaven-de- 
scended. These words must be regarded as adjectives, and 
not participles, since they have no corresponding verbs. 



IV. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

In sentences containing more than one proposition, two 
kinds of structure prevail — the loose, and the periodic, or 
compact. 

A loose sentence is one in which the parts are related in 
thought, but are wholly independent of each other in con- 
struction ; as, " Three days they mourned over Carthon ; 
on the fourth, his father died." 

Rem. I. — The parts of a loose sentence are called its members. The 
jaembers of a loose sentence may be simple, complex, or compound ; as,, 
" In the narrow plain they lie, and a dim ghost defends their tomb.'* 
1 On that rising ground, where the green turf looks black with fire, yes- 
terday stood a noble mansion ; the owner had said in his heart, Here will 
I spend the evening of my days,, and enjoy the fruit of my years of toil/* 
44 My name shall descend with mine inheritance, and my children's children 
shall sport under the trees which I have planted." 

Rem. 2. — The loose sentence is to be found chiefly among compound 
sentences. 

A compact sentence, sometimes called close, is one in 
which the parts are closely united both in thought and con- 
struction ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

Rem. 1. — Compact sentences maybe either complex or compound ; as, 
44 In order to succeed in their enterprises, it is necessary that they should 
put on, at least, the appearance of virtue.'* " Seek ye first the kingdom 
of God and his righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto 
you " 

18 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAS*. 

Rem. 2. — Both loose and compact sentences may have connectives to 
combine their parts. When the connective is expressed, the union of the 
parts is considered closer than when it is omitted ; and when correlatives 
are used, the union is still closer. 

Rem. 3. —In uttering a loose sei tence, the voice should fall at the end 
of each member ; in uttering a compact sentence, the voice should be kept 
up till the close, 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the loose and the compact sentences in the following exam- 
pies : — 

Morning rose in the east; the blue waters rolled in light. If the war 
should be unsuccessful, you will aggravate existing evils ; if successful, 
your enemy will have no treasure left to give our merchants. The first 
losses will be confounded with mucb greater, and be forgotten. 

The very men who charged the Indian war on the detention of the posts 
will call for no other proof than the recital of their own speeches. If 1 
could find words for them, if my powers bore any proportion to my zeal, I 
would swell my voice to such a note of remonstrance, that it should reach 
every log house beyond the mountains. 



PUNCTUATION. — THE COMMA. 207 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition by 
means of points. 

Rem. 1. — Points, are used to separate either sentences or the elements 
of sentences. The elements, in by far the greater number of instances, are 
riot separated at all. It is only when there is some peculiarity in the struc- 
ture, use, or condition of an element that it is pointed off. Usually, the 
point is employed where the position of the words may lead to a wrong 
connection or dependence of words, and consequently to a misapprehen- 
sion of the author's meaning . thus the following sentence may have sev- 
eral meanings according to the punctuation. James Johnson says he lias 
written beautifully. James, Johnson says he has written beautifully. 
James Johnson, says he, has written beautifully. James Johnson says he 
has written " beautifully." 

Hem. 2. — Although a pause is usually made where a point is placed, 
the points mark rather the seme than the pauses, Sometimes no pause 
whatever should be made where a comma is required ; as, " No, sir." 
" Yes, sir." / 

These points may be divided into two classes — those 

which separate the elements of a sentence, and those which 

separate entire sentences. 

The following are the principal marks used in punctuation : — 

The comma ( ? ), the semicolon (5), the colon (:), the dash 

(— ), the parenthesis ( ), the period (.), the interrogation 

point (?), and the exclamation point (!). 



I. POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. 

Tlie 'omnia. 

The comma is used principally to separate the elements 
of close sentences. 

Three rules may be given for the use of the comma. 

Rule I. When the elements of a sentence are simple, 
and are arranged in the natural orde/, they should not 
be separated ; but when any element, whether simple or 
complex, is transposed, loosely connected, or used paren- 
thetically, it should be pointed off. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



EXAMPLES. 

" Sciong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. The path of 
vii tue is the path of peace. He lived, as he said, on a vegetable diet. 
False delicacy is affectation, not politeness. Intrinsically, the other 
is the most valuable. Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must 
make. 

Examples to be punctuated according to Rule I. 

Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Whoever firmly wills -will be a 
good man. Light whether it be material or spiritual is the best reformer. 
He who teaches often learns himself. Cherish true patriotism which ha3 
its root in benevolence. Here comes his body mourned by Mark Antony. 
Study I beseech you to store your minds with the exquisite learning of 
former ages. 

(1.) The following words and phrases are pointed off by this rule: 
Again, besides, moreover, further, nay, hence, once more, as yet, first, sec- 
ondly, lastly, namely, in short, in truth, in fact, in fine, in general, in par- 
ticular, in the mean time, in the next place, on the contrary, without doubt, 
of course, for the most part, now and then, consequently, accordingly, un- 
questionably, indisputably, &c, &c. 

(2.) The nominative case independent, and several of the interjections, 
are separated by the comma ; since they are not elements of the sentence, 
and consequently are not closely connected ; as, " My son, hear the in- 
structions of thy father." " For, lo, I will call all the families of the 
kingdoms of the north." 

(3.) Mil en a simple element of the third class is not closely connected, 
or used in a restrictive sense, it is punctuated by a comma, though arranged 
in the natural order ; as, " He will go, if it is possible.'* 

Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate miles. 

Punctuality is no doubt a quality of high importance. The most vigor- 
ous thinkers and writers are in fact self-taught. Unfortunately he thinks 
too highly of himself. Antonio light my lamp within my chamber. 
Boast not my dear friends of to-morrow. Come companion of my toils 
let us take fresh courage. Where thoughts kindle words spontaneously 
flow. Go where a man may home is the centre to which his heart turns. 
It were no virtue to bear calamities if we did not feel them. 

Rule II. When an element is complex, and considerably 
extended, it should be pointed off by the comma.* 

EXAMPLES. 

Remember your own feelings, in order that you may judge of the feel- 
ings of of hers] That a peculiar state of the mere particles of the brain 
shoidd bejollowed by a change of the state of the se?itient mind, is truly won- 
derful. 

Examples to be punctuated according to Ride II. 

Grace of manners is so essential to rulers that whenever it is neglected 
their virtues lose a great degree of lustre. The more highly we cultivate 
our minds here the better shall we be prepared for the nobler pursuits of 
the next stages of our existence. It had been better for them not to have 
Known the way of. righteousness than after they had known it to tura 
6">jn the holy commandment committed to them. 



PUNCTUATION. RULES. 2<)9 

(1.) By this rule, the complex subject of a simple sentence, when long, 
should be separated by the comma from the predicate as, " The intermix' 
ture of evil in society, seems to exercise the noblest virtues of the human 
soul.'*' 

(2.) The clauses of a complex sentence should be separated by tne com- 
ma, where the subordinate clause is complex, and is not used in a restric- 
tive sense ; as, " We sometimes forget our faults, when toe are -not reminded 
of them." Abridged clauses generally follow the same rule as complete 
clauses; as, " Shame being lout, all virtue is lost." 

(3.) A single noun in apposition with another, is not separated from it 
by a comma; as, " Paul the apostle ; " but when the noun in apposition is 
limited by several words, the comma should be inserted ; as, " Paul, the 
apostle of the Gentiles." 

(4.) When a sentence contains several extended adverbial elements, 
phrases, or clauses, they should be separated by the comma ; as, " The an- 
cients separated the corn from the ear, by causing an ox to trample on the 
sheaves" 

(o.) A short expression quoted, or used as a quotation, should be sepa- 
rated by the comma ; as, " The first lesson of a judicious education is, 
Learn to think and to discriminate ; " also the verbs, say, reply, and the like, 
with their dependent words, introducing a quotation or remark, are usually 
separated by the comma; as, " Ossian says, That sorrow shades the soul of 
Clessammor" 

Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate rules. 

A government directing itself resolutely and steadily to the general 
good becomes a minister of virtue. He who sees a building as a common 
spectator contents himself with speaking of it. The word philosopher 
signifies lover of wisdom. The twin sisters Piety and Poetry are said to 
dwell together. Diogenes the Greek ^philosopher lived in a tub. 

General Washington the first president of the United States was a true 
patriot a genuine lover of his country. The wise and good of every 
name are with diversity of gifts but the same spirit striving each in his own 
Way to carry society forward into a healthier condition than the present. 

Patrick Henry commenced by saying " It is natural to man to indulge 
in the illusions of hope." 

There is much truth in the proverb "Without pains no gains." 

Eule III. When an element is compound, the compo- 
nent parts are generally separated by the comma ; as, " Some 
men ^infrequently, deliberately, and presumptuously." 

EXAMPLES. 

Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and gleams out in the 
hues of the shell and the precious stone. Speak as you mean, do as 
you profess, and perform what you promise. Has God provided for the 
poor a coarser earth a thinner air, a paler sl^y ? 

Suffering often calls forth our best feelings, and the highest energiet 
of the mind. 

Examples to be punctuated by Rule II. 

Great moral principles pure and generous dispositions cannot be con- 
fined to this or that spot. The true worshipper of beauty sees it in the 
lowliest flower meets it in every path enjoys it every where. Get justly use 
»Dberly distribute cheerfully "tnd live cont ^ntedly. The one had no more 



21Q ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

reason than the other to repine at his fortune and war against mankind. 
To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world and "to 
he wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide. 

'1.) When a compound element consists of but two simple elements, 
tne parts should not be separated, unless the conjunction which connects 
them is understood ; as, " Peter and John went up into the temple." " A 
bold decisive blow was struck." 

(2 ) When or denotes an alternative of words, and not ideas, the twe 
connected words should be separated by the comma; as, " The gulf, or 
bay, is dangerous/' Nearly allied to this construction is that in whicn the 
same word is repeated ; as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you." 

(3.) Two simple elements, so connected as to show opposition or con- 
trast, should be pointed by the general rule ; as, " Though deep, yet clear" 
" Though fallen, great" 

(4.) If both elements are complex, and considerably extended, or if one 
is complex and the other is not, the comma may be placed between them. 
This rule applies particularly to the compound predicate ; as, " He left, 
and took his brother with him." 

(5.) When words are joined in pairs, the pairs are separated from each 
other, but not the words composing them; as, "Hope and fear, pleas ure 
&ti& pain, diversify our lives." 

(6.) When the conjunction which connects two elements is omitted, 
the comma takes its place ; as, " Thomas is a plain, honest man." So, 
also, when a verb is understood, the comma takes its place ; as, " From 
law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." 

(7.) When the connected parts are clauses, whether coordinate or sub 
ordinate, and are closely united, they should be separated by the comma 
as, " Life is short, and art is long." " I neither knew what I was, when 
I was, nor from whence I came." 

Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate ride. 

A healthy body and a sound mind should be preserved as real blessings. 
Some men would be distinguished in their occupation or pursuit or pro- 
fession or in the style of living or in the dignity of office or in the glare 
and pride and. pomp of power. Truth is fair and artless simple and sin- 
cere uniform and consistent. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a 
fool to outshine others. The benevolent man is esteemed ; the penurious 
despised. We are fearfully and wonderfully made. He departed and hope 
departed with him. 



Tlie Colon and Semicolon. 

The colon and semicolon are used chiefly to separate the 
members of a loose sentence 



EXAMPLES. 

Make a proper use of your time ; for .he loss of it can never be re- 
gained. The noblest prophets and apostles have been children xnce; lisp- 
ing the speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought oi boyhood. 
Stones grow ; vegetables grow and live ; animals grow, live, and feel 
Cowards die many times ; the valiant never taste of death. 

Hum. L— The colon is now but little used, except before examples fo 3 



PUNCTUATION. — DASH AND PARENTnESIS. 211 

lowing the expressions as follows, the following examples, in these 
&c. ; as; "Perform the following exeriiaes : "He used these wnrda 
Mr. President:" &c It is also used to separate the terms of a pro- 
portion; as, " A : B : : C : D." 

Rem. 2. — When, in a complex sentence, several subordinate clauses 
are united to each other, having a common dependence upon the principal 
clause, they are separated by the semicolon ; as, " Philosophers assert that 
Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treas- 
ures in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that fu- 
ture generations will continue to make discoveries." 



EXERCISE. 

Insert the ccmma, the semicolon, and the colon where they ire required in 
the following examples : — 

Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the sign of a weak 
mind. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden but Dryden certainly 
wanted the diligence of Pope. The great tendency and purpose of poetry 
is to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten dusty weary walks of 
ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more pro- 
found and generous emotion. Write on your slates the following exam- 
ple Mary and John will go. The great and good were there. Endeavor 
to excel much may be accomplished by perseverance. 



The Dash and Parenthesis. 

The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an 
unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence 
is left unfinished ; as, " He sometimes counsel takes — and 
sometimes snuff." " But I must first ." 

Rem. — The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis -, 
as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the towm in 
which they had been so wretched." 

The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence 
not necessaiy to the construction, but in some way ex* 
planatory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, M Consider 
(and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the 
fatal consequences of a wicked life." 

EXERCISE. 

Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are required in the follmo 
ng examples : — 

Horror burst the bands of sleep; but my feelings words are too weak, 
too powerless to express them. T\.e Egyptian style of architecture sea 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. Pocock, not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother 
of the Greek. While they wished to please, and why should they not 
wish it, they disdained dishonorable means. If thou art he, so much re 
spected once but, 0, how fallen ! how degraded ! 



II. POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE. 

The Period. 

The period is used at the close of a declarative or an im- 
perative sentence. It is also used to denote an abbreviation. 

EXAMPLES. 

Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. Let what 
you have gained be an impulse to something higher. If you will, you can 
rise. The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted 
in them. I was inyited to meet Mr. and Mrs. Clifford. 

EXERCISE. 

Insert the period where it is required in the following examples : — 
Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason Let its pre- 
cepts be religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits Abhor a falsehood 
I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and disgrace, stop 
where you are The oration was delivered by J L Thompson, Esq The 
event occurred B C 1001 ToRH Dana Jun Esq the well-known author of 
"Two Years before the Mast," the community are greatly indebted But 
the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same region, for the 
reasons already given See Chap VI § 2 ^ 4 p 330 



Interrogation Point. 

An interrogation point is used at the close of a question , 
as, " Who comes there ? " 

Rem. — When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordinate 
clause, — 

(1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause is quoted di 
rectly ; as, " He said, Why do you weep ? " 

(2.) The interrogation point is not employed where the clause is quoted 
indirectly ; as, " He asked me why I wept." 



Exclamation Point. 

An exclamation point is used at the close of an exclama* 
tory sentence ; as, " How unsearchable are his ways ! " 



PUNCTUATION. OTHER MARKS, ETC. 213 

Rem. — An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after mi 
exclamatory expression or an interjection ; as, " O, Jo^e Supreme! whom 
men and gods revere I " " O ! let soft pity touch the mind 1 " 



EXERCISES. 

Insert interrogation and exclamation points where they are required 
tn the following examples : — 

Daughter of Faith awake arise illume the dread unknown the chaoi 
of the tomb Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am To what place shalJ 
I betake myself O Pascal thou wert pure in heart m this world, and no\* 
thou art in full sight of God. Apostles of liberty what millions attest the 
authenticity of your mission. Did she fall like Lucifer, never to hope 
again To purchase heaven has gold the power Who shall separate us 
from the love of Christ What kill thy friend who lent thee money, for 
asking thee for it The secret I implore : out with it speak discover utter 

Punctuate correctly i?i all respects the following examples : — 
What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite in facul- 
ties in form and moving how express and admirable in action how like an 
angel in apprehension" how like a God The air was mild as summer all 
corn was otf the ground and the skylarks were singing aloud by the way 1 
saw not one at Keswick perhaps because the place abounds in birds of 
prey Dr H Marsh FRS&c Bishop of Peterborough b 1757 d 1839 As 
the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties to the task before him 
and tears sometimes fall on the page he is studying so it is in the school 
of God's providence there are hard lessons in it When the poor victims 
were bayoneted clinging round the knees of the soldiers would my friend 
but I could cannot pursue the strain of my interrogation 



OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 

Brackets ([ ]) are used when a word or phrase is intro* 
duced for explanation or connection ; as, " He [the teacher] 
thus explained the difficulty." 

The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used either to denote the possessive 
case, or the omission of a letter ; as, u John's." " O'er." 

The Quotation Marks ( "" ) are used to include a passage 
taken verbatim from some other author ; as, " He said, * 1 
relinquish my claim. ' " 

The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk ( t ), the Double Dagger {%), 
and the Parallels ( || ) are used to refer to notes in the mar- 
gin, or at the bottom of the page. Sometimes the Sectioi) 
( § ) and the Paragraph ( fl ) are used. Also small letters, 
or figure's v which refer to notes at the foot of the page. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

The Caret ( A ) is used in writing to show that 4ome 
letter, word, or phrase has been omitted ; as, " The pencil 
lies ° A n the table." 

The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com- 
pound word ; as, " Book-binder." When placed at the end 
of a line, it shows that a word is divided, the remaining part 
being carried to the next line. 

The Ellipsis ( # * * ) ( ) is used to denote the 

omission of certain letters or words ; as, " C * * * 11." 

"K g." 

The Rrapp i cormects a number of words with one com- 
( mon term. 

The Index ( ISP ) points to some remarkable passage. 

The Section ( § ) also denotes the divisions of a treatise. 

A Paragraph ( fl ) also denotes the beginning of a new 
subject. 

The vowel marks are the DlfTresis ( .. ), placed over the 
second of two vowels which are separated ; the Long 
sound ( - ), placed over a 'long vowel ; the Breve or Short 
sound (^ ), placed over a short vowel; and accents, Grave 

( \ ), Acute ( ' ), and Cireamflei ( a ). 

Rem. — The best practical exercises on all these marks and points will be 
given by the teacher. Let the pupil be required to construct sentences 
requiring the use of them ; or let the teacher read from some book, any 
passage which demands the use of them, and let the class be required to 
insert them in thedr proper places. 



PROSODY. VERSE FEET. 215 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 

VERSE. 

A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented sy'i 
tables, constituting a line of poetry. 

A couplet is the combination of two lines or verses. 
triplet consists of three lines. 

A stanza is the combination of several lines forming a 
division of a poem or song. 

Rem. — Verse is sometimes erroneously applied to a stanza. 
Verse is of two kinds — rhyme and blank verse. 
Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 
verse to that of another. 

Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

FEET. 

A foot is a portion of verse containing two or more syl- 
lables, combined according to accent. 

Rem. 1. — The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in uttering 
it. All syllables are either long or short. 

Rem. 2. — In English, an accented syllable is considered long ; and an 
unaccented, short. 

Rem. 3. — A straight line ( - ) over a syllable shows that it is accented, 
and a curved line ( s^ ) that it is unaccented. 

The principal feet in English are the iambus, the trochee, 
the anapast, and the dactyl. 

The iambus consists of a short and a long syllable ; as 
" invite" "devote" " benign." 

The trochee consists of a long and a short syllable ; as, 
44 grateful" " grievous" 

The anapcest consists of two short syllables and one long 
one ; as, " incomplete" " condescend" 



2lf> ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

The dactyl consists of one long syllable and two short 
ones ; as, " positive" " loneliness." 

Rem. 1. — Besides the kinds of feet mentioned above, four others 
sometimes occur — the pyrrhic and the spondee, the amphibrach and the 
tribrach. The pyrrhic consists of two short, and the spondee of two long 
syllables ; as, " in the (vale; J " " vain man." The amphibrach has three 
syllables, of which the first and third are short, the second is long ; as, 
"contentment." The tribrach consists of three short syllables; as, 
" (innujmerable" 

Rem. 2. —These last four feet are seldom found in English poetry. 
They sometimes mingle with other feet, and give thereby a pleasing 
variety; as, 

" From p^ak j to peak | the rat- [ tling crags | among. 
Leaps t!t£ \ live than- | ddr ! not j from one | lone cloud.''* 

Here the first foot is a trochee, and the second is a spondee. They cccur 
in a single verse of an iambic poem. 



EXERCISES. 

What foot does eac h of the following words contain : — 
Absent, control, viewing, darkness, complete, correct, glory, reproduce, 
indite, reconstruct, compose, gloriously, positive, acquiesce, reunite, beau- 
tiful, sweetest, comforter, overcom churlishness, nourishing, intercede, 
foolishness. 

Prefix one or more words to the following, so as'to make a phrase consist- 
keg of iioo iambic feet, thus ; — 

"A new supply. defeat. — disgrace. accord. 

— . — proclaims. — commends. divine. entreats. 

believes. 

A line consisting of one foot is called monometer ; of two, 
dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five, 
pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of seven, heptameter. 

Rem. — When a syllable is wanting, the line is said to be cat a lectin ; 
when the measure is full, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a redundant 
lyllable, it is called hyper meter. 



SCANNING. 
Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the feet which 
compose it- 

IAMBIC VERSE ; 

k isM*^ tj ufc* £s& •— monometer : — 
They go 
To sow. 



PROSODY. IAJMBli VERSE. 217 



2. Iambio of two fed — dimeter : — 

Tft me | the" rose 
No longer glows. 

8. Iambic of three feet — trimeter : — 

No roy | al pomp | adorns 
This King of righteousness. 



4. Iambic of four feet — tetrameter : — 

And cold | er still j the winds | did blow, 
And darker hours of night came on. 

n. Iambic of five feet — pentameter: — 

On rift- | ed rocks, | the drag- | on'slate | abodes, 
The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 

6. Iambic of six feet — hexameter : — 

His heart | Ts sad, | his hope | is gSne, | his light I Ys passed ; 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering clay. 

7. Iambic of seven feet — heptameter : — 

Th£ lof- | ty hill, | the hum- | ble lawn, | with count- | less beau- | 

ties shine. 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine- 

Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; that of six feet 
is called Alexandrine. 

Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two lines — 
the first containing four feet, the second three. This is 
called common metre ; as, 

The lofty hill, the humble lawn, 

With countless beauties shine ; 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, 

Proclaim thy power divine. 

In long metre, each line has four iambic feet ; in short 
metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three iambic 
feet, the third four. 

Each species of iambic verse may have one additional 
short syllable, thus : — 

1. Relent- | frig. 

2. Upon | a moun- | tain. 

3. When on | her Ma- | ker's bo- | s6m. 

4. First this | large par- | eel brings j you tl- | dmgs. 

5. Each sub- | stance of | a grief | hath twen- | ty shad- | Sws. 

6. Thine eye | Jove's light- j nixig seems I thy' voice | his dread- | ful 

thun- | der. 

7. How gai- | ly 6- | ver fell I and fen j y6n sp6rts- ) man light J is 

dash- | ing ! 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

TROCHAIC C^ERSE. 

1. Trochaic of one foot : — 

Changing 
Ranging. 

2. Trotfiaic of two feet : — 

Fancy | viewing, 
Joys ensuing. 

3t Trochaic of three feet : — 

Go where | glory | waits thee. 
But when fame elates thee. 

4. Trochaic of four feet: — 

Round a | holy | calm dif- | fusing, 
Love of peace and lonely musing. 

5. Trochaic of five feet : — 

All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. Trochaic of six feet : — 

On a | mountain | stretched, be- | neath a | hoary | willow,. 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 

In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd sylla 
bles ; in iambic, on the even. 

Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; as, 

1. Where we | may 
Think and pray. 

2. And at | morn they | play, 
In the foaming spray. 

3. Heaving | upward | to the | light. 

4. O'er the | past too | fondly | wander- | ing. 

& Reared 'mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he ] no com- j peers. 
& Casting | down their | golden | crowns a- | round the | glassy | sea. 

ANAPJESTIC VERSE. 

1. Anapaestic of one foot : — 

But in vain 
They complain. 

2. Anapaestic oftioo feet : — 

Where the sun J loves to pause 
With so fond a delay. 

S. Anapaestic of three feet : — 

From the cen- ] tre, all round | to the sea, 
I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 



PROSODY. POETIC PAUSES* 219 

I. Anapaestic of four feet : — 

At the close | 6f the' day, | when the ham- | lit Ts still, 
And mortals the sweets* of forgetfulne*s prove. 

In anapoestic verse, the accent falls on every third syllable. 

The first foot of an anapaestic verse may be an iambus ; as, 

And mor- | tals the sweets | of forget- | fulness prove. 

DACTYLIC VE11SE. 

1. Dactylic of one foot : — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2. Dactylic of two feet : — 

Free fr5m anx- | iety, 
Care and satiety. 

3 Dactylic of three feet : — 

Wearing a- | way m his | yoiithfulness, 
Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 

4 Dactylic of four feet : — 

Boys will an- I ticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
All that your busy pate hoarded with care. 

Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The dif- 
ferent kinds of feet are often mingled in the same verse, 
thus : — 

I come, | I come ; | ye have called | me long ; 

I come j o'er the moun- | tains with light | and song. 



POETIC PAUSES. 

Besides the pauses required by the sense or grammati- 
cal construction of verse, two pauses — the final and ccesural 
— may also occur. _ 

The final pause occurs at the end of each Une, whether 
ehe sense requires it or not. 

The ccesural pause occurs within the line itself, and is 
only a suspension of the voice ; as, 

M Ask for what end — the heavenly bodies shine* 1 * 



220 ifoGLISH GRAMMAR* 

EXERCISES. 

Corudruct a line to i \yme with the following : — • 

" The soldier marched upon the burning sand," 

" Soft the breeze in yonder vale/' 

w The leaves are falling one by one," 

Scan tne j\ ,'hcnaing ', and tell what kind of verse it is : — 

"• When all thy mercies, O my God ! 
My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise." 

' From Greenland's icy mountains, 

From India's coral strand, 
Where Afric's sunny fountains 

Roll down their golden sand ; 
From many an ancient river, 

From many a palmy plain, 
They call us to deliver 

Their land from error's chain." 

" The morn is up again, the dewy morn, 

With breath all incense, and with cheek all bloom 
Laughing the* clouds away, with playful scorn, 
And living as if earth contained no tomb, — 
And glowing into day : we may resume 
The march of our existence : and thus I, 

Still on thy shores, fair Leman ! may find room 
And food for meditation, nor pass by 
Much that may give us pause, if pondered fittingly *" 

" Hail, holy light, offspring of heaven first born, 
Or of th' eternal co-eternal beam ! 
May I express thee unblamed ? since God is light, 
And never but in unapproached light 
Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee, 
Bright effluence of bright essence increate, 
Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream, 
Whose fountain who shall tell ? " 

*' Ye nymphs of Solyma ! begin the song ; 
To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong. 
The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades, 
The dreams of pindus and tl\' Aonian maids. 
Delight no more I thou my voice inspire, 
Who tcuched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire i " 



FINIS. 



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